3
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………3
PART 1 WHAT IS THE GRAMMAR………………………………………4
1.1 The Importance of grammar………………………………………….….4
1.2 The Psychological Characteristic of Grammar Skills……………………4
1.3 The Content of Teaching grammar…………………………………….…6
PART 2 MAJOR METHODS AND PRINCIPLES ………………………….8
1.1 A Brief Review of the Major Methods of Foreign Language Teaching.…8
1.1.1 The Grammar Translation method…………………………………..…8
1.1.2 The Direct Method……………………………………………………..9
1.1.3 The Audiolingual Method……………………………………….……10
1.1.4 Grammar explanations as used in the major methods………..……….10
1.2 Some General Principles of Grammar Teaching……………………..….11
1.2.1 Conscious approach……………………………………………….…..11
1.2.2 Practical approach……………………………………………….…….12
1.2.3 Structural approach……………………………………………………12
1.2.4 Situational approach…………………………………………….….….13
1.2.5 Different approach…………………………………………………….13
PART 3 FURTHER POINTS FOR CONCIDERATION…………………….14
1.1 Introduction of new Material……………………………………………..14
1.1.1 Introducing new language structure…………………………….……..14
1.1.2 Types of
context………………………………………………………..
………………..15
1.1.3 The presentation of structural form………………………………..…..15
1.1.4 A general model for introducing new language……………………….15
1.2 Teaching grammar patterns……………………………………………….16
1.3 Correction…………………………………………………………………18
1.4 The Most Common Difficulties in Assimilating English Grammar………20
PART 4 TYPES OF EXERCISES FOR THE ASSIMILATION OF
GRAMMAR…………………………………….…………………………….21
1.1 Recognition exercises……………………………………………………21
1.2 Drill exercises………………………………………………..…………..21
1.3 Creative exercises………………………………………………………..23
1.4 Grammar tests……………………………………………..……………..24
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………..….…..25
LITERATURE…………………………………………………………….….26
ITRODUCTION
Language is the chief means by which the human personality expresses
itself and fulfills its basic need for social interaction with other
persons.
Robert Lado wrote that language functions owing to the language skills.
A person who knows a language perfectly uses a thousand and one grammar
lexical, phonetic rules when he is speaking. Language skills help us to
choose different words and models in our speech.
It is clear that the term “grammar” has meant various things at various
times and sometimes several things at one time. This plurality of
meaning is characteristic of the present time and is the source of
confusions in the discussion of grammar as part of the education of
children. There have been taking place violent disputes on the subject
of teaching grammar at school.
The ability to talk about the grammar of a language, to recite its
rules, is also very different from ability to speak and understand a
language or to read and write it. Those who can use a language are often
unable to recite its rules, and those who can recite its rules can be
unable to use it.
Grammar organizes the vocabulary and as a result we have sense units.
There is a system of stereotypes, which organizes words into sentences.
But what skill does grammar develop?
First of all it gives the ability to make up sentences correctly, to
reproduce the text adequately. (The development of practical skills and
habits)
The knowledge of the specific grammar structure helps pupils point out
the differences between the mother tongue and the target language.
The knowledge of grammar develops abilities to abstract systematize
plural facts.
The name of my work is “Teaching Grammar”. And the main aim is to
clearly recognize how to teach grammar right.
PART 1 WHAT IS THE GRAMMAR
1.1 The Importance of Grammar in Learning a Foreign Language
To judge by the way some people speak, there is no place for grammar in
the language course nowadays; yet it is, in reality, as important as it
ever was exercise of correct grammar, if he is to attain any skill of
effective use of the language, but he need not know consciously
formulated rules to account to him for that he does unconsciously
correctly.
In order to understand a language and to express oneself correctly one
must assimilate the grammar mechanism of the language studied. Indeed,
one may know all the words in a sentence and yet fail to understand it,
if one does not see the relation between the words in the given
sentence. And vice versa, a sentence may contain one, two, and more
unknown words but if one has a good knowledge of the structure of the
language one can easily guess the meaning of these words or at least
find them in a dictionary.
No speaking is possible without the knowledge of grammar, without the
forming of a grammar mechanism.
If learner has acquired such a mechanism, he can produce correct
sentences in a foreign language. Paul Roberts writes: “Grammar is
something that produces the sentences of a language. By something we
mean a speaker of English. If you speak English natively, you have built
into you rules of English grammar. In a sense, you are an English
grammar. You possess, as an essential part of your being, a very
complicated apparatus which enables you to produce infinitely many
sentences, all English ones, including many that you have never
specifically learned. Furthermore by applying you rule you can easily
tell whether a sentence that you hear a grammatical English sentence or
not.”
A command of English as is envisaged by the school syllabus cannot be
ensured without the study of grammar. Pupils need grammar to be able to
aud, speak, read, and write in the target language.
1.2 The Psychological characteristics of grammar skills
To develop one’s speech means to acquire essential patterns of speech
and grammar patterns in particular. Children must use these items
automatically during speech-practice. The automatic use of grammar items
in our speech (oral and written) supposes mastering some particular
skills – the skills of using grammar items to express one’s own
thoughts, in other words to make up your sentences.
We must get so-called reproductive or active grammar skills.
A skill is treated as an automatic part of awareness. Automatization of
the action is the main feature of a skill.
The nature of Automatization is characterized by that psychological
structure of the action which adopts to the conditions of performing the
action owing frequent experience. The action becomes more frequent,
correct and accurate and the number of the operations is shortened while
forming the skill the character of awareness of the action is changing,
i.e. fullness of understanding is paid to the conditions and quality of
performing to the control over it and regulation.
To form some skills is necessary to know that the process of the forming
skills has some steps:
– Only some definite elements of the action are automatic.
– The Automatization occurs under more difficult conditions, when the
child can’t concentrate his attention on one element of the action.
– The whole structure of the action is improved and the automatization
of its separate components is completed.
What features do the productive grammar skills have?
During our speech the reproductive grammar skills are formed together
with lexis and intonation, they must express the speaker’s intentions.
The actions in the structural setting of the lexis must be learnt.
The characteristic feature of the reproductive grammar skills is their
flexibility. It doesn’t depend on the level of Automatization, i.e. on
perfection of skill here mean the original action: both the structure of
sentence, and forms of the words are reproduced by the speaker using
different lexical material. If the child reproduces sentences and
different words, which have been learnt by him as “a ready-made thing”
he can say that there is no grammar skill. Learning the ready-made
forms, word combinations and sentences occurs in the same way as
learning lexis.
The grammar skill is based on the general conclusion. The grammar action
can and must occur only in the definite lexical limits, on the definite
lexical material. If the pupil can make up his sentence frequently,
accurately and correctly from the grammatical point of view, he has got
the grammar skill.
Teaching grammar at school using the theoretical knowledge brought some
critical and led to confusion. All the grammatical rules were considered
to be evil and there were some steps to avoid using them at school.
But when we learn grammatical items in models we use substitution and
such a type of training gets rid of grammar or “neutralizes” it. By the
way, teaching the skills to make up sentences by analogy is a step on
the way of forming grammar skills. It isn’t the lexical approach to
grammar and it isn’t neutralization of grammar, but using basic
sentences in order to use exercises by analogy and to reduce number of
grammar rules when forming the reproductive grammar skills.
To form the reproductive grammar skills we must follow such steps:
– Selection the model of sentence.
– Selection the form of the word and formation of wordforms.
– Selection the auxiliary words-preposition, articles, and etc. and
their combination with principle words.
The main difficulty of the reproductive (active) grammar skills is to
correspond the purposes of the statement, communicative approach (a
questionan answer and so on), words, meanings, expressed by the
grammatical patterns. In that case we use basic sentences, in order to
answer the definite situation. The main factor of the forming of the
reproductive grammar skill is that pupils need to learn the lexis of the
language. They need to learn the meanings of the words and how they are
used. We must be sure that our pupils are aware of the vocabulary they
need at their level and they can use the words in order to form their
own sentence. Each sentence contains a grammar structure. The mastering
the grammar skill lets pupils save time and strength, energy, which can
give opportunity to create. Learning a number of sentences containing
the same grammatical structure and a lot of words containing the same
grammatical form isn’t rational. But the generalization of the grammar
item can relieve the work of the mental activity and let the teacher
speed up the work and the children realize creative activities.
The process of creation is connected with the mastering of some speech
stereotypes the grammatical substrat is hidden in basic sentences.
Grammar is presented as itself. Such a presentation of grammar has its
advantage: the grammar patterns of the basic sentences are connected
with each other. But this approach gives pupils the opportunity to
realize the grammar item better. The teaching must be based on grammar
explanations and grammar rules. Grammar rules are to be understood as a
special way of expressing communicative activity. The reproductive
grammar skills suppose to master the grammar actions which are necessary
for expressing thoughts in oral and written forms.
The automatic perception of the text supposes the reader to identify the
grammar form according to the formal features of words, word
combinations, sentences which must be combined with the definite
meaning. One must learn the rules in order to identify different
grammatical forms. Pupils should get to know their features, the ways of
expressing them in the language. We teach children to read and aud by
means of grammar. It reveals the relation between words in the sentence.
Grammar is of great important when one teaches reading and auding.
The forming of the perceptive grammar and reproductive skills is quite
different. The steps of the work is mastering the reproductive skills
differ from the steps in mastering the perceptive skills. To master the
reproductive grammar skills one should study the basic sentences or
models. To master the perceptive grammar skills one should identify and
analyze the grammar item. Though training is of great importance to
realize the grammar item.
1.3 The Content of Teaching Grammar
Before speaking about the selection of grammar material it is necessary
to consider the concept “grammar”, i.e., what it meant by “grammar”.
By grammar one can mean adequate comprehension and correct usage of
words in the act of communication, that is, intuitive knowledge of the
grammar of the language. It is a set of reflexes enabling a person to
communicate with his associates. Such knowledge is acquired by a child
in the mother tongue before he goes to schools.
This “grammar” functions without the individual’s awareness of technical
nomenclature; in other words, he has no idea of the system of the
language, and to use all the word-endings for singular and plural, for
tense, and all the other grammar rules without special grammar lessons
only due to the abundance of auding and speaking. His young mind grasps
the facts and “makes simple grammar rules” for arranging the words to
express carious thoughts and feelings. This is true because sometimes
little children make mistakes by using a common rule for words to which
that rule cannot be applied. For example, a little English child might
be heard to say Two mans comed instead of Two men come, because the
child is using the plural “s” rule for man to which the rule does not
apply, and the past tense ed rule for come which does not obey the
ordinary rule for the past tense formation. A little Russian child can
say ножов instead of ножей using the case-ending “ов” for ножи to which
it does not apply. Such mistakes are corrected as the child grows older
and learns more of his language.
By “grammar” we also mean the system of the language, the discovery and
description of the nature of language itself. It is not a natural
grammar, but a constructed one. There are several constructed grammars:
traditional, structural, and transformational grammars. Traditional
grammar studies the forms of words (morphology) and how they are put
together in sentences (syntax); structural grammar studies structures of
various levels of the language (morpheme level) and syntactic level;
transformational grammar studies basic structures and transformation
rules.
What we need is simplest and shortest grammar that meets the
requirements of the school syllabus in foreign languages. This grammar
must be simple enough to be grasped and held by any pupil. We cannot say
that this problem has been solved.
Since graduates are expected to acquire language proficiency in aural
comprehension, speaking and reading grammar material should be selected
for the purpose. There exist principles of selecting grammar material
both for teaching speaking knowledge (active minimum) and for teaching
reading knowledge (passive minimum), the main one is the principle of
frequency, i.e., how frequently this or that grammar item occurs. For
example, the Present Simple (Indefinite) is frequently used both in
conversation and in various texts. Therefore it should be included in
the grammar minimum.
For selecting grammar material for reading the principle of polysemia,
for instance, is of great importance.
Pupils should be taught to distinguish such grammar items which serve to
express different meanings.
For example, -s (es)
The selection of grammar material involves choosing the appropriate kind
of linguistic description, i.e., the grammar which constitutes the best
base for developing speech habits. Thus the school syllabus reflect a
traditional approach to determining grammar material for foreign
language teaching, pupils are given sentences patterns or structures,
and through these structures they assimilate the English language,
acquire grammar mechanisms of speech
The content of grammar teaching is disputable among teachers and
methodologists, and there are various approaches to the problem, pupils
should, whatever the content of the course, assimilate the ways of
fitting words together to form sentences and be able to easily recognize
grammar forms and structures while hearing and reading, to reproduce
phrases and sentences stored up in their memory and say or write
sentences of their own, using grammar items appropriate to the
situation.
PART 2 MAJOR METHODS AND PRINCIPLES
1.1A Brief Review of the Major Methods of Foreign Language Teaching
The grammatical systems of Russian and English are fundamentally
different. English is an analytical language, in which grammatical
meaning in largely expressed through the use of additional words and by
changes in word order. Russian is a synthetic language, in which the
majority of grammatical forms are created through changes in the
structure of words, by means of a developed system of prefixes, suffixes
and ending. (p. 121, Brown C. and Jule “Teaching the spoken language”,
Cambridge, 1983)
No one knows exactly how people learn languages although a great deal of
research has been done into the subject.
Many methods have been proposed for the teaching of foreign language.
And they have met with varying degrees of success and failure.
We should know that the method by which children are taught must have
some effect on their motivation. If they find it deadly boring they will
probably become de-motivated, whereas if they have confidence in the
method they will find it motivating. Child learners differ from adult
learners in many ways. Children are curious, their attention is of a
shorter duration, they are quite differently motivated in, and their
interests are less specialized. They need frequent of activity; they
need activities which are exciting and stimulating their curiosity; they
need to be involved in something active.
We shall examine such methods as “The Grammar – Translation Method”,
”The Direct Method”, “The Audio-lingual Method”. And we pay attention to
the teaching grammar of the foreign language. We shall comment those
methods, which have had a long history.
1.1.1 The Grammar Translation method will be discussed
This method was widely used in teaching the classics, namely Latin, and
it was transferred to the teaching of modern languages when they were
introduced into schools.
In the grammar-translation mode, the books begin with definitions of the
parts of speech, declensions, conjugations, rules to be memorized,
examples illustrating the rules, and exceptions. Often each unit has a
paragraph to be translated into the target language and one to be
translated into native one. These paragraphs illustrate the grammar
rules studied in the unit. The student is expected to apply the rules on
his own. This involves a complicated mental manipulation of the
conjugations and declensions in the order memorized, down to the form
that might fit the translation. As a result, students are unable to use
the language, and they sometimes develop an inferiority complex about
languages in general. Exceptionally bright and diligent students do
learn languages by this method, or in spite of it, but they would learn
with any method. (R. Lado)
We list the major characteristics of Grammar Translation.
– Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the
target language.
– Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
– Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
– Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction
often focuses on the form and inflection of word.
– Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
– Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as
exercises in grammatical analysis.
– Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected
sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
– Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
(Brown H., Douglas ‘Principles of language teaching’, N.Y., 1987)
The grammar-translation method is largely discredited today. With
greater interest in modern languages for communication the inadequacy of
grammar-translation methods became evident.
1.1.2 The Direct Method
The Direct Method appeared as a reaction against the grammar-translation
method.
There was a movement in Europe that emphasized language learning by
direct contact with the foreign language in meaningful situations. This
movement resulted in various individual methods with various names, such
as new method, natural method, and even oral method, but they can all be
referred to as direct methods or the direct method. In addition to
emphasizing direct contact with the foreign language, the direct method
usually deemphasized or eliminated translation and the memorization of
conjugations, declensions, and rules, and in some cases it introduced
phonetics and phonetic transcription.
The direct method assumed that learning a foreign language is the same
as learning the mother tongue, that is, that exposing the student
directly to the foreign language impresses it perfectly upon his mind.
This is true only up to a point, since the psychology of learning a
second language differs from that of learning the first. The child is
forced to learn the first language because he has no other effective way
to express his wants. In learning a second language this compulsion is
largely missing, since the student knows that he can communicate through
his native language when necessary.
The basic premise of Direct Method was that second language learning
should be more like first language learning: lots of active oral
interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between
first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical
rules. We can summarize the principles of the Direct
Method:
– Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target
language.
– Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
– Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded
progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between
teachers and student in small, intensive classes.
– Grammar was taught inductively, i.e. the learner may discover the
rules of grammar for himself after he has become acquainted with many
examples.
– New teaching points were introduced orally.
– Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and
pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
– Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
– Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
1.1.3 The Audiolingual Method
The Audiolingual Method (It is also called Mimicry-memorization method)
was the method developed in the Intensive Language Program. It was
successful because of high motivation, intensive practice, small
classes, and good models, in addition to linguistically sophisticated
descriptions of the foreign language and its grammar.
Grammar is taught essentially as follows: Some basic sentences are
memorized by imitation. Their meaning is given in normal expressions in
the native language, and the students are not expected to translate word
for word. When the basic sentences have been overlearned (completely
memorized so that the student can rattle them off without effort), the
student reads fairly extensive descriptive grammar statements in his
native language, with examples in the target language and native
language equivalents. He then listens to further conversational
sentences for practice in listening. Finally, practices the dialogues
using the basic sentences and combinations of their parts. When he can,
he varies the dialogues within the material hr has already learned. The
characteristics of ALM may be summed up in the following list:
– New material is presented in dialog form.
– There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and
overlearning.
– Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught
one at a time.
– Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
– There is a little or no grammatical explanation: grammar is taught by
inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation.
– Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
– There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
– Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
– very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
– Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
– There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free
utterances.
– There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.
1.1.4 Grammar explanations as used in the major methods
We shall briefly review the treatment of grammatical explanations by
some of the major methods. This is not meant to be an exhaustive study
of all available methods; rather it is an attempt to show the variety of
ways in which different methods deal with grammar explanations and may
help teachers in evaluating available materials.
Grammar translation is associated with formal rule statement. Learning
proceeds, deductively, and the rule is generally stated by the teacher,
in a textbook, or both. Traditional abstract grammatical terminology is
used. Drills include translation into native language.
The direct method is characterized by meaningful practice and exclusion
of the mother tongue. This method has had many interpretations, some of
which include an analysis of structure, but generally without the use of
abstract grammatical terminology.
The audio-lingual method stresses an inductive presentation with
extensive pattern practice. Writing is discouraged in the early stages
of learning a structure. Here again, there has bee considerable
variation in the realization of this approach. In some cases, no
grammatical explanation of any kind is offered. In other, the teacher
might focus on a particular structure by isolating an example on the
board, or through contrast. When grammatical explanation is offered it
is usually done at the end of the lesson as a summary of behavior
(Politzer, 1965), or in later versions of this method the rule might be
stated in the middle of the lesson and followed by additional drills.
Each method is realized in techniques. By a technique we mean an
individual way in doing something, in gaining a certain goal in teaching
learning process. The method and techniques the teacher should use in
teaching children of the primary school is the direct method, and
various techniques which can develop pupils` listening comprehension and
speaking. Pupils are given various exercises, connected with the
situational use of words and sentence patterns.
1.2 Some General Principles of Grammar Teaching
1.2.1 Conscious approach
This means that in sentence patterns teaching points are determined so
that pupils can concentrate their attention on some elements of the
pattern to be able to use them as orienting points when speaking or
writing the target language. For example, I can see a book. I can see
many books.
The teacher draws pupils’ attention to the new element in the form of a
rule, a very short one. It is usually done in the mother tongue. For
example: Помни, что во множественном числе к существительному
прибавляется окончание –s [s,z] или –es [IZ]. Or: Помни, что в
отрицательных предложениях ставится вспомогательный глагол “do not”
(“does not”).The rule helps the learner to understand and to assimilate
the structural meaning of the elements. It ensures a conscious approach
to learning. This approach provides favourable conditions for the speedy
development of correct and more flexible language use. However it does
not mean that the teacher should ask pupils to say this or that rule,
Rules do not ensure the mastery of the language. They only help to
attain the practical goal. If a pupil can recognize and employ correctly
the forms that are appropriate, that is sufficient. When the learner can
give ample proof of these abilities we may say that he has fulfilled the
syllabus requirements.
Conscious learning is also ensured when a grammar item is contrasted
with another grammar item which is usually confused. The contrast is
brought out through oppositions. For example:
I get up at 7 o’clock.
It’s 7 o’clock. I am getting up.
He has come.
He came an hour ago.
Give me a book (to read into the train).
Give me the book (you have promised),
I like soup (more than any other food).
I like the soup ( you have cooked).
Rule for the teacher:
The teacher should realize difficulties the sentence pattern presents
for his pupils. Comparative analysis of the grammar item in English and
in Russian or within the English language may be helpful. He should
think of the shortest and simplest way for presentation of the new
grammar item. The teacher should remember the more he speaks about the
language the less time is left to practice. The more the teacher
explains the less his pupils understand what he is trying to explain,
this leads to the teacher giving more information than is necessary,
which does not help the pupils in the usage of this particular grammar
item, only hinders them.
1.2.2 Practical approach
It means that pupils learn those grammar items which they need for
immediate use either in oral or written language. For example, from the
first steps of language learning pupils need the Possessive Case for
objects which belong to different people, namely, Mike’s textbook, Ann’s
mother, the girl’s doll, the boys’ room, etc. The teacher masters
grammar through performing various exercises in using a given grammar
item.
1.2.3 Structural approach
Grammar items are introduced and drilled in structures or sentence
patterns.
It has been proved and accepted by the majority of teachers and
methodologists that whenever the aim to teach pupils the command of the
language, and speaking in particular, the structural approach meets the
requirements.
Pupils are taught to understand English when spoken to and to speak it
from the very beginning. This is possible provided they have learned
sentence patterns and words as a pattern and they know how to adjust
them to them to the situations they are given.
In our country the structural approach to the teaching of grammar
attracted the attention of many teachers. As a result structural
approach to grammar teaching has been adopted by our schools since it
allows the pupil to make up sentences by analogy, to use the same
pattern for various situations. Pupils learn sentence patterns and how
to use them in oral and written language.
Rule for the teacher:
The teacher should furnish pupils with words to change the lexical
(semantic) meaning of the sentence pattern so that pupils will be able
to use it in different situations. He should assimilate the grammar
mechanism involved in sentence pattern and not the sentence itself.
1.2.4 Situational approach
Pupils learn a grammar item used in situations. For example, the
Possessive Case may be effectively introduced in classroom situations.
The teacher takes or simply touches various things and says This is
Nina’s pen; That is Sasha’s exercise-book, and so on.
Rule for the teacher:
The teacher should select the situations for the particular grammar item
he is going to present. He should look through the textbook and other
teaching materials and find those situations which can ensure
comprehension and the usage of the item.
1.2.5 Different approach
Grammar items pupils need for conversation are taught by the oral
approach, i.e., pupils aud them, perform various oral exercises, finally
see them printed, and write sentences using them.
For example, pupils need the Present Progressive for conversation. They
listen to sentences with the verbs in the Present Progressive spoken by
the teacher or the speaker (when a tape recorder is used) and relate
them to the situations suggested. Then pupils use the verbs in the
Present Progressive in various oral sentences in which the Present
Progressive is used. Grammar items necessary for reading are taught
through reading.
Rule for the teachers:
If the grammar item the teacher is going to present belongs to those
pupils need for conversation, he should select the oral approach method
for teaching.
If pupils need the grammar item for reading, the teacher should start
with reading and writing sentences in which the grammar item occurs.
While preparing for the lesson at which a new grammar item should be
introduced, the teacher must realize the difficulties pupils will meet
in assimilating this new element of the English grammar. They may be of
three kinds: difficulties in form, meaning, and usage. The teacher
thinks of the ways to overcome these difficulties: how to convey the
meaning of the grammar item either through situations or with the help
of the mother tongue; what rule should be used; what exercises should be
done; their types and number. Then he thinks of the sequence in which
pupils should work to overcome these difficulties, i.e., , from
observation and comprehension through conscious imitation to usage in
conversation (communicative exercises). Then the teacher considers the
form in which he presents the grammar item – orally, in writing, or in
reading. And, finally, the teacher plans pupils’ activity while they are
learning this grammar item (point): their individual work, mass work,
work in unison, and work in pairs, always bearing in mind that for
assimilation pupils need examples of the sentence pattern in which this
grammar item occurs.
PART 3 FURTHER POINTS FOR CONCIDERATION
1.1 Introduction of new Material
1.1.1 Introducing new language structure
We will consider ways in which children can be introduced to new
language structure.
When we present grammar through structural patterns we tend to give
students tidy pieces of language to work with We introduce grammar,
which can easily be explained and presented. There are many different
ways of doing this, which do not (only) involve the transmission of
grammar rules.
It is certainly possible to teach aspects of grammar – indeed that is
what language teachers have been doing for centuries – but language is a
difficult business and it is often used very inventively by its
speakers, In other words real language use is often very untidy and
cannot be automatically reduced to simple grammar patterns. Students
need to be aware of this, just as they need to be aware of all language
possibilities. Such awareness does not mean that they have to be taught
each variation and linguistic twist, however. It just means that they
have to be aware of language and how it is used. That is why reading and
listening are so important, and that is why discovery activities are so
valuable since by asking students to discover ways in which language is
used we help to raise their awareness about the creative use of grammar
– amongst other things.
As teachers we should be prepared to use a variety of techniques to help
our students learn and acquire grammar. Sometimes this involves teaching
grammar rules; sometimes it means allowing students to discover the
rules for themselves.
What do we introduce? Our job at this stage of the lesson is to present
the pupils with clear information about the language they are learning.
We must also show them what the language means and how it is used; we
must also show them what the grammatical form of the new language is,
and how it is said and/or written.
What we are suggesting here is that students need to get an idea of how
his new language is used by native speakers and the best way of doing
this is to present language in context.
The context for introducing new language should have a number of
characteristics.It should show what the new language means and how it is
used, for example. That is why many useful contexts have the new
language being used in a written text or dialogue.
A good context should be interesting for the children. This doesn’t mean
that all the subject matter we use for presentation should be wildly
funny or inventive all of the time. But the pupils should at least want
to see or hear the information.
Lastly, a good context will provide the background for a lot of language
use so that students can use the information not only for the repetition
of model sentences but also for making their own sentences.
Often the textbook will have all the characteristics mentioned here and
the teacher can confidently rely on the material for the presentation.
But the textbook is not always so appropriate: for a number of reasons
the information in the book may not be right for our students in such
cases we will want to create our own contexts for language use.
1.1.2 Types of context
Context means the situation or body of information, which causes
language to be used. There are a number of different context types, but
for our purposes we will concentrate on three, the students’ world, the
outside world and formulated information.
The students’ world can be a major source of contexts for language
presentation. There are two kinds of students’ world. Clearly we can use
the physical surroundings that the students are in – the classroom,
school or institution. But classrooms and their physical properties
(tables, chairs, windows, etc.) are limited. The students’ lives are not
constrained in the same way, however, and we can use facts about them,
their families, friends and experiences.
The outside world provides us with rich contexts for presentation For
example, there is an almost infinite number of stories we can use to
present different lenses. We can also create situations where people
speak because they are in those situations, or where the writer
describes some special information. This is especially useful for the
practice of functional language, for example.
We can ask students to look at examples of language which show the new
language in operation, though this last category can sometimes have no
context. These three sub-categories, story, situation or language, can
be simulated or real. Most teachers are familiar with ‘made-up’ stones
which arc often useful for classwork: real stories work well too, of
course. In the same way we can create the simulation of an invitation
dialogue, for example. But here again we could also show students a real
invitation dialogue. In general we can say that real contexts are better
simply because they are real, but they may have complexities of language
and comprehensibility which can be avoided by simulated contexts –
life-like but clearly mode-up to some extent.
Formulated information refers to all that information which is presented
in the form of timetables, notes, charts etc. Once again we can use real
charts and timetables, growth statistics, etc. or we can design our own
which will be just right for our students.
1.1.3 The presentation of structural form
One of the teacher’s jobs is to show how the new language is formed –
how the grammar works and how it is put together. One way of doing this
is to explain the grammar in detail, using grammatical terminology and
giving a mini-lecture on the subject. This seems problematical, though,
for two reasons; firstly many pupils may find grammatical concepts
difficult, secondly- such explanations for beginners will be almost
impossible.
A more effective – and less frightening – way of presenting form is to
let the students see and/or hear the new language, drawing their
attention in a number of different ways to the grammatical elements of
which it is made. For whilst advanced students may profit from
grammatical explanations to a certain extent, at lower levels we must
usually find simpler and more transparent ways of giving students
grammatical information.
1.1.4 A general model for introducing new language
The model has five components: lead-in, elicitation, explanation,
accurate reproduction, and immediate creativity.
During the lead-in the context is introduced and the meaning or use of
the new language is demonstrated. This is the stage at which students
may hear or see some language (including the new language) and during
which students may become aware of certain key concepts. The key
concepts are those pieces of information about the context that are
vital if students are to understand the context and thus the meaning and
use of the new language.
During the lead-in stage, then, we introduce our context (making sure
that key concepts are understood) and show the new language in use.
During the elicitation stage the teacher tries to see if the students
can produce the new language. If they can it would clearly be wasteful
and de-motivating for them if a lot of time was spent practicing the
language that they already know. At the elicitation stage – depending on
how well (and if) the students can produce the new language – the
teacher can decide which of the stages to go to next. If the students
can’t produce the new language at all, for example, we will move to the
explanation stage. If they can, hut with minor mistakes, we may move to
the accurate reproduction stage to clear up those problems. If they know
the new language but need a bit more controlled practice in producing it
we may move directly to the immediate creativity stage Elicitation is
vitally important for it gives the teacher information upon which to
act: it is also motivating for the students and actively involves their
learning abilities.
During the explanation stage the teacher shows how the new language is
formed. It is here that we may give a listening drill or explain
something in the students’ own language; we may demonstrate grammatical
form on the blackboard. In other words, this is where the students learn
how the new language is constructed.
During the accurate reproduction stage students are asked to repeat and
practise a certain number of models. The emphasis here will be on the
accuracy of what the students say rather than meaning or use. Here the
teacher makes sure that the students can form the new language
correctly, getting the grammar right and perfecting their pronunciation
as far as is necessary.
1.2 Teaching grammar patterns
We’ll examine “Teaching Grammatical Patterns” by Robert Lado (Chapter 10
“From Sentences to Patterns”)
Robert Lado thinks that even children who have never studied the rules
grammar make use of the grammar of the language. This is seen in the
mistakes they make. When a child says, He goed, he is forming a
“regular” preterite on the pattern: showed, weighed, served: “goed.” His
error reveals the fact that he has been applying the pattern even though
he is not able to describe it.
– Patterns and Sentences
A grammatical pattern is an arrangement of parts having linguistic
significance beyond the sum of its parts. The parts of a pattern are
expressed by words or classes of words so that different sentences often
express the same pattern. All the sentences of a language are cast in
its patterns.
John telephoned, The boy studied.
We understood different sentences are expressing the same statement
pattern in English.
A pattern is not a sentence, however. Sentences express patterns. Each
sentence illustrates a pattern. To memorize a sentence does not imply
that a pattern has been memorized. There can be countless sentences,
each unique, yet all constructed on the same pattern.
– Patterns and Grammar
Children learn the grammatical patterns of their language before they
study grammar in school. When a child says goed instead of went or
knowed instead of knew, he is applying the regular preterite pattern on
the analogy,
open: opened = go: goed
Patterns are learned in childhood. Adults no longer have to learn new
patterns; they learn new words that are used in old patterns. That the
old patterns are alive is shown by putting unknown words and phrases
into them.
And what is the role of the native language in learning the patterns of
a foreign language?
– Native Language Factor
The most important factor determining ease and difficulty in learning
the patterns of a foreign language is their similarity to or difference
from the patterns of the native language. When the pattern in the target
language is parallel to one in the native language, the student merely
learns new words which he puts into what amounts to an extended use of
his native pattern. Since his word learning capacity is not lost, he
makes rapid progress. When, however, the native language pattern does
not parallel that of the target language, the student tends to revert to
his native language patterns through habit.
– Grading the Patterns
There is no single grading scale for teaching the patterns of a foreign
language. Any systematic cumulative progression, taking into account the
structures that are difficult, would be satisfactory from a linguistic
point of view.
– Pattern-practice
Approach The mimicry-memorization exercise tends to give the same
amounts of practice to easy as well as difficult problems. It also
concentrates unduly on the memorization of specific sentences, and not
enough on the manipulation of the patterns of sentences in a variety of
content situations. For those patterns that are functionally parallel to
the native language, very little work needs to be done, and very little
or no explanation is necessary. On the other hand, for those patterns
that are not parallel in the two languages, more specific understanding
of the grammatical structure points at issue is needed while the
sentences are learned and not before or after. And more practice with
the pattern is necessary before it is learned, that is, used without
attention to its structure.
– Basic sentences
The memorization of sample sentences that contain the grammatical
problems to he mastered is common to both pattern practice and
mimicry-memorization. For this practice there is ample justification in
linguistics and in psychology. The utterances have to become readily
available if the student is to use them in the rapid sequence of
conversation.
– Teaching the patterns
A sentence can be learned as a single unstructured unit like a word, but
this is only the beginning. The student must acquire the habit of
constructing sentences in the patterns of the target language. For this
he must be able to put words almost automatically into a pattern without
changing it, or to change it by making the necessary adjustments.
Teaching a problem pattern begins with teaching the specific structure
points where a formal change in the pattern is crucial and where the
student is not able to manipulate the required changes. The steps in
teaching problem patterns are (1) attention pointer, usually a single
sentence calling the students’ attention to the point at issue; (2)
examples, usually minimally contrastive examples showing a pair of
sentences that differ only on the point or points being made; (3)
repetition by the class and presentation of additional examples of the
same contrast; (4) comments or generalization elicited inductively from
the students and confirmed by the teacher; (5) practice, with attention
on the problem being taught.
These steps an intended to clarify the crucial point of contrast at the
time when sentences are being learned. They should take only a small
portion of the class time—no more than 15 per cent.
Robert Lado accents that many teachers make the mistake of trying to
explain everything at length while the class listens passively. Long
explanations without active practice are a waste of time, and even with
practice they are inefficient. Most of the class should be devoted to
practice.
1.3 Correction
During the accurate reproduction phase there are two basic correction
stages: showing incorrectness (indicating to the student that something
is wrong) and using correction techniques.
– Showing incorrectness
This means that we will indicate to the student that a mistake has been
made. If the student understands this feedback he or she will be able to
correct the mistake and this self-correction will be helpful to him or
her as part of the learning process.
There are a number of techniques for showing incorrectness:
§ Repeating: Here we simply ask the student to repeat what he or she has
just said by using the word ‘again’. This, said with a questioning
intonation, will usually indicate that the response was unsatisfactory
(although it could be misunderstood as only indicating that the teacher
has not heard the student’s response).
§ Echoing: We will be even clearer if we repeat what the student has
just said, using a questioning intonation since this will clearly
indicate that we are doubting the accuracy or content of what is being
said.
Sometimes we can echo the complete student response, probably stressing
the pan of the utterance that was incorrect, for example:
She go to school?
Another possibility is to echo the student’s response, but only up to
the point where the mistake was made,ftor example: She go …?
Echoing, in its various forms, is probably the most efficient way of
showing incorrectness.
§ Denial: We can simply tell the student that the response was
unsatisfactory and ask for it to be repeated. This seems somewhat drier
than the techniques so far discussed; it may be a bit more discouraging.
§ Questioning: We can say ‘Is that correct?’ asking any student in the
class to answer our question. This has the advantage of focusing
everybody’s mind on the problem, though it may make the student who made
the mistake seem somewhat exposed.
§ Expression: Many teachers indicate that a response was incorrect by
their expression or by some gesture. This is very economical (and can be
quite funny) but can be dangerous if the student thinks that the
expression or gesture is a form of mockery.
In general, showing incorrectness should be handled with tact and
consideration. The process of student self-correction, which it
provokes, is an important and useful part of the learning process.
Showing incorrectness should be seen as a positive act, in other words,
not as a reprimand.
Frequently, however, we find that showing incorrectness is not enough
for the correction of a mistake or an error and the teacher may
therefore have to use some correction techniques.
– Using correction techniques
If students are unable to correct themselves we can resort to one of the
following techniques.
§ Student corrects student: we can ask if anyone else can give the
correct response. We can ask if anyone can ‘help’ the student who has
made the mistake. If another student can supply the correct information
it will be good for that student’s self-esteem. However, the student who
originally made the mistake may feel humiliated if this technique is
used insensitively.
§ Teacher corrects student(s): Sometimes we may feel that we should take
charge of correction because the students are extremely mixed-up about
what the correct response should be. In that case we can re-explain the
item of language, which is causing the trouble. This will be especially
appropriate when we see that a majority of the class are having the same
problem. After the re-explanation we can move to choral and individual
repetition (if necessary) before moving on.
The object of using correction techniques, of course, is to give the
student(s) a chance to (know how to) get the new language right. It is
important, therefore, that when we have used one of the techniques
suggested above, we ask the student who originally made the mistake to
give us a correct response.
When the children and teacher are confident that the children can form
the new language correctly they will move to immediate creativity. Here
they try to use what they have just learned to make sentences of their
own, rather than sentences which the teacher or book has introduced as
models.
It is at this stage that both teacher and student can see if the
students have really understood the meaning, use and form of the new
language. If they are able to produce their own sentences they can feel
confident that the presentation was success.
Notice again that if the students perform well during elicitation the
teacher can move straight to immediate creativity. If at that stage they
perform badly the teacher may find it necessary either to return to a
short accurate reproduction stage or in extreme cases, to re-explain the
new language.
1.4 The Most Common Difficulties Pupils Howe in Assimilating English
Grammar
The chief difficulty in learning a new language is that of changing from
the grammatical mechanism of the native language to that of the new
language. Indeed, every language has its own way of fitting words
together to form sentences. In English, word order is more important
than in Russian. The word order in Tom gave Helen a rose indicates what
was given (a rose), to whom (Helen), and by whom (Tom). If we change the
word order and say Helen gave tom a rose, we shall change the meaning of
the sentence. In Russian, due to inflexions, which are very important in
this language, we can say Том дал Лене розу or Лене дал Том розу without
changing the meaning of the sentence, as the inflexion “e” in the word
Лене indicates the object of the action.
The inversion of subject and finite verb in Are you… indicates the
question form. In speaking English, Russian pupils often violate the
word order which results in bad mistakes in expressing their thoughts.
The English tense system also presents a lot of trouble to
Russian-speaking pupils because of the difference which exists in these
languages with regard to time and tense relations. For example, the
pupil cannot at first understand why we must say I have seen him today
and I saw him yesterday. For him the action is completed in both
sentences, and he does not associate it in any way with today or
yesterday.
The sequence of tenses is another difficult point of English grammar for
Russian speaking pupils because there is no such phenomenon in their
mother tongue. Why should we say She said she was busy when she is busy?
The use of modal verbs in various types of sentences is very difficult
for the learner. For example, he should differentiate the use of can and
may while in Russian the verb may covers them both. Then he should
remember which verb must be used in answers to the questions with modal
verbs. For instance, May I go home? No, you mustn’t. May I take your
pen? Yes, you may. Must I do it? No, you needn’t.
The most difficult point of English grammar is the article because it is
completely strange to Russian-speaking pupils. The use of the articles
and other determiners comes first in the list of the most frequent
errors. Pupils are careless in the use of “these tiny words” and
consider them unimportant for expressing their thoughts when speaking
English.
English grammar must begin, therefore, with pupils’ learning the meaning
of these structural words, and with practice in their correct use. For
example: This is a pen. The pen is red. This is my pen and that is his
pen.
PART 4 TYPES OF EXERCISES FOR THE ASSIMILATION OF GRAMMAR
1.1 Recognition exercises
These exercises are the easiest type of exercises for pupils to perform.
They observe the grammar item in structures (sentence patterns) when
hearing or reading. Since pupils only observe the new grammar item the
situations should be natural and communicative. For example:
– Listen to the sentences and raise your hands whenever you hear the
verbs in the Past Simple.
Mike lives in Pushkin Street. I lived there last year. Ann gets up at 7
o’clock in the morning. She got up at half past seven yesterday. Etc.
It is desirable that sentences formed should concern real situations and
facts.
Pupils listen to the teacher and raise their hands when they hear a verb
in the Past Simple. The teacher can see whether each of his pupils has
grasped the sentence.
– Read the sentences and choose the correct form of the verb. The
following sentences may be suggested:
I (go, went) to school yesterday.
Tom (takes, took) a bus when he goes to school.
She (got, gets, gets) up at 7 o’ clock every day.
Pupils should read the sentences and find the signals for the correct
choice of the form. Since the necessary form is suggested in each
sentence they should only recognize the one they need for a given
context.
Recognition exercises are indispensable as pupils retain the grammar
material through auditory and visual perception. Auditory and visual
memory is at work.
1.2 Drill exercises
They are more completed as they require reproduction on the part of the
pupils. In learning a foreign language drill exercises are
indispensable. The learners cannot assimilate the material if they only
hear and see it. They must reproduce it both in outer and inner speech.
The more often they say it the better they assimilate the material.
Though drill exercises are those in which pupils have only one
difficulty to overcome, they should also be graded:
– Repetitive drill. Pupils pronounce the sentence pattern after the
teacher, in imitation of the teacher, both individually and in unison.
For example:
Teacher: They are dancing in the park.
Class: They are dancing in the park.
Individuals: They are dancing in the park.
Or pupils listen to the dialogue and say it after the speaker.
-Is Ann dancing now?
-No, she isn’t.
-What is she doing?
-She is watching television.
Attention is drawn to the correct pronunciation of the sentence pattern
as a sense unit, as a statement (sounds, stress, and melody).
– Substitution. Pupils substitute the words or phrases in a sentence
pattern. For example:
The children are dancing in the park.
The children are dancing in the garden.
The children are dancing in the street.
The children are dancing in the yard.
The children are dancing in the hall.
The children are dancing after classes.
The children are dancing at the party.
A pupil substitutes a phrase, the rest may say it in unison. Then they
are invited to replace the word dancing with other words.
They are singing in the park.
They are working in the park.
They are walking in the park.
They are playing in the park.
They are running in the park.
They are talking in the park.
They are watering flowers in the park.
They are planting trees in the park.
They are helping the workers in the park.
The use of a particular verb is stimulated with pictures (or a Russian
word). Quick revision is achieved with a small expenditure of effort. In
this way they review many words and phrases. As pupils have only one
difficulty to overcome the work does not take much time. Or pupils are
invited to replace the words in the dialogue with those given in columns
(see the dialogue above).
There is one more advantage in performing this type of exercises—pupils
consolidate the grammar item without thinking about it. They think of
the words, phrases, but not of the form itself, therefore, involuntary
memory is at work.
– Completion
Pupils complete the sentences the teacher utters looking at the pictures
he shows. For example:
Teacher: Look at the picture.
Mike is … … .
Pupil: Mike is getting up.
Class: Mike is getting up.
Teacher: Mike is … … .
Pupil: Mike is dressing.
Class: Mike is dressing.
Attention should be given to the use of is in this exercise. The teacher
should pronounce Mike is … to prevent the typical mistake of the
pupils (Mike dressing). This is essential structural element of the
tense form of the Present Continuous; Russian-speaking pupils, however,
do not feel any necessity to use it.
– Answering the teacher’s questions
For example:
Teacher: Is Mike getting up?
Pupil: Yes, he is.
Teacher: Who is getting up?
Pupil: Mike is.
Teacher: What is Mike doing?
Pupil: He is getting up.
Drill exercises may be done both orally and in written form. Pupils
perform oral exercises during the lesson and written ones at home. For
example, they ate told to write five or seven sentences on the model
given.
During the next lesson the work done at home is checked orally. In this
way pupils have practice in pronunciation while reading their own
examples, and in auding while listening to their classmates.
1.3 Creative exercises (speech exercises)
This is the most difficult type of exercises as it requires creative
work on the part of the learners. These may be:
– Making statements either on the picture the teacher shows, or on
objects. For example, the teacher hangs up a picture and asks his pupils
to say or write three or five statements in the Present Continuous.
– Asking questions with a given grammar item. For example, pupils are
invited to ask and answer questions in the Past Indefinite.
– Speaking about the situation offered by the teacher. For example, one
pupil gives commands to perform this or that action, the other comments
on the action (actions) his classmate performs.
Pupil 1: Go to the door, Sasha.
Pupil 2: Sasha is going to the door.
Pupil 3: Open the door.
Pupil 4: Sasha is opening the door.
– Speaking on a suggested topic. For example, a pupil tells the class
what he did yesterday.
– Making dialogues using the grammar item covered.
– Telling the story (read, heard).
– Translating into English.
Participating in free conversation in which pupils are to use the
grammar item they have learned. E. g., pupils have learned sentence
patterns with the impersonal it.
Through these questions pupils are stimulated to speak about the weather
and use the grammar item they have learnt.
All the exercises of the creative type are designed for consolidating
grammar material pupils need for hearing and speaking.
All the exercises mentioned above are designed:
– to develop pupils’ skills in recognizing grammar forms while auding
and reading English texts;
– to accumulate correct sentence patterns in the pupils’ memory which
they can reproduce whenever they need these patterns for speaking or
writing;
– to help the pupils to produce sentences of their own using grammar
items necessary for speaking about a situation or a topic offered, or
writing an essay on the text heard or an annotation on the text read.
1.4 Grammar tests
A check on the assimilation of grammar material is carried out through:
– auding (if a pupil understands what he auds, he knows grammar);
– speaking (if a pupil uses the grammar item correctly, he has
assimilated it);
– reading (if a learner understands what he reads, he knows grammar);
– tests.
Tests allow the teacher to evaluate pupils’ achievement in grammar, that
is, how each of them has mastered forms, meaning, and usage. Tests in
grammar may involve: filling in the blanks; opening the brackets;
transformation (e. g., make it negative, change into plural, etc.);
extension (e. g., / like to read books — I like to raid English bocks in
our library); completion (e. g., When I came home …); making
statements on the pictures given; translation.
CONCLUSION
In order to understand a language and express oneself correctly one must
assimilate the grammar mechanism of a language. Indeed, one may know all
the words in a sentence and yet fail to understand it, if one does not
see the relationship between the words in the given sentence. And vice
versa, a sentence may contain one, two, and more unknown words but if
one has a good knowledge of the structure of the language one can easily
guess the meanings of these words or at least find them in a dictionary,
No speaking is possible without the knowledge of grammar, without the
forming of a grammar mechanism. Children need grammar to be able to
speak, and write in the target language.
Our aim is to form grammar skills and prevent children from making
grammar mistakes in their speech. The aim of foreign languages in
primary schools is to develop pupils’ skills in order to understand
speech and participate in conversation.
The method and techniques the teacher should use in teaching children of
primary school is the direct method and various techniques which can
develop pupils’ listening comprehension and speaking.
We have examined two kinds of grammar skills: the reproductive and
receptive grammar skills. The reproductive grammar skills give pupils an
opportunity to make up their own sentences in oral and written forms in
other words to communicate and the receptive grammar skills give them an
opportunity to read texts or aud and understand it.
To master the reproductive grammar skills one should study the basic
sentences or models (grammar is presented as itself in the basic
sentences), to master the receptive grammar skills one should identify
and analyze the grammar item. We teach children to read by means of
grammar. It reveals the relationship between the words in the given
sentence.
We have such a conclusion that the forming of grammar skills depends on
training. Training is of great importance to realize the grammar item.
We must use a lot of training exercises for the assimilation of grammar.
We should provide the motivation of learn English, encourage children to
communicate and remember that the correction of errors in the early
stages of a language course may foster the following negative aspects:
– children lose confidence when they have fear of making grammar
mistakes
– children become reluctant to take risks: they only the say the
information they know they can say
We should realize the importance of training exercises and the role of
the individual approach to teaching the children. Besides, the teacher
must have a clear idea of the grammar of the language, its structure and
usage; everything he teaches must be based on it; he should always be
conscious of introducing or practicing some point of grammar.
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22 www.englishclub.narod.ru
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