1
UNIT 1
ABOUT MYSELF
I. Гласные звуки [i], [i:].
II. Text A: «About myself»,
Text B: «My Biography».
III. Личные местоимения, определенный и неопределенный артикль,
множественное число существительных.
Phonetic warm-up (Фонетическая разминка)
Гласный звук [i] При произнесении краткого гласного звука [i] кончик
языка находится у основания нижних зубов: оттенок русского звука [и] в
словах шить, шило практически совпадает с английским [i]: it, sit, in
Гласный звук [i:] При произнесении долгого гласного [i:] язык продвинут
вперед, кончик языка касается нижних зубов, губы несколько растянуты и
слегка обнажают зубы. Оттенок русского звука [и] в словах ива, иго,
игры, избы практически совпадает с английским звуком [i:].
Сочетания ее, еа — читаются [i:]. Например, meet, peat.
Долгота звука влияет на лексическое значение слова.
Например: feet (ноги) — fit (вмещаться), steel (сталь) — still (все еще)
Exercise A
lead — lid
if — it — tip — kit
did — bill
mill — meal
pill — peel
keel — kill
sit — seat
Exercise Вbeat — bin
it — seat
steel — still
feel — fill — feet
fit — eat — bean
simple — Pete — feel — peel
meet — meat — ill — bill — steel — feel Exercise D
be — been — beandid — deed
pit — peat
fit — feet
it — eat
lid — lead
Exercise С
bin — beanme — meet — meat
see — seat — seed
meal — seal — mean
pea — Pete — peat
sea — see — meet
bee — been — feet
mean — lean — keen
Exercise E
I see a sea. I see a clean sheet. I eat meat. I like meat.
I like tea. I make tea. I take tea. I like fine tea. I like fine meals.
People make steel. People make fine steel. People make steel pipes.
People make fine steel planes. I like life. I like kind people. I like
kind smiles. I feel fine. I smile.
Text A: “ABOUT MYSELF”
Hello, friends. Let me first introduce myself. My name is Ann or Anya
for my friends. My surname or last name is Sokolova. I was born on the
2nd of October in Sochi, Krasnodarsky Krai. This is the most beautiful
city in Russia situated on the Black Sea coast. Now I am a first-year
student at the Technical Academy. In five years I’ll be an engineer.
Now let me describe my appearance. I am tall and slim and have fair hair
and blue eyes. My friends say that I am pretty. I think I am just
good-looking. I love sports and music. I was very serious about a career
in gymnastics when I was in the 5th form. But then I broke my arm and
doctors didn’t let me go in for gymnastics. I love to listen to modern
music and dance. I dance a lot and I hope I am good at it. I also love
swimming. I always swim in the Black sea when I visit my parents, my
dear family.
I would like to tell you about my family. There are five people in our
family. My father’s name is Vladimir Stepanovich. He is a mathematician
by education and businessman by profession. My mother’s name is Tatyana
Petrovna. She is a housewife. She has much work about the house because
I have a younger sister. She is a pupil. My sister Natasha is in the
fifth form. My grandmother, my mother’s mother, lives with us. She is
very kind and helps us a lot.
Our family is very friendly, we have many friends. In summer many
relatives come to visit us. And, of course, they use a chance to spend
several weeks in beautiful Sochi.
In May I have finished school No 5 in Sochi. I did well in all the
subjects but my favourite subjects at school were Physics and Computer
Science. I also enjoyed English lessons.
I am very interested in learning English because I always wanted to
become a programmer or maybe a businesswoman. I also think that the
knowledge of foreign languages helps in everyday life and career.
Two years ago I travelled much around Europe. I have visited France,
Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. There the
knowledge of English helped me a lot.
As you see,’ my biography isn’t very long yet. But we’ll meet again in
the next lesson and I’ll tell you more about myself. See you later…
Vocabulary:
introduce — представлять, знакомить
Black Sea coast — побережье Черного моря
a first-year student — студент(ка) первого курса
region— область
appearance— внешность
slim — стройная
career— карьера
gymnastics — гимнастика
mathematician — математик
housewife — домохозяйка
several — несколько
to do well — зд. успевать
chance — случай, шанс
kind — добрый
a lot — много
the Netherlands — Нидерланды
the United Kingdom — Соединенное Королевство (Великобритания)ADD TO YOUR
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
(ПОПОЛНИ СВОЙ АКТИВНЫЙ СЛОВАРЬ):
tall — высокий
short — маленького роста
stout — приземистый, коренастый
slim — стройный
fat — толстый
plumpy — полный
fair hair — светлые волосы
blonde — блондин(ка)
brunette — брюнет(ка)
gray hair — седые волосы
bold headed — лысый
short sighted — близорукий
smart, clever, bright — умный (я)
stupid — тупой, глупый
boring — скучный
fun to be with — веселый человек
easy to go along — легкий в общении
quiet — спокойный
impulsive — порывистый, импульсивный
aggressive — агрессивный
rude — невежливый, грубый
shy, confused — застенчивый
active — активный
talkative — разговорчивый
enthusiastic — энтузиаст, затейник
Exercise 1.1. Please, introduce yourself. The questions below will
certainly help you:
1. What is your name?
2. Where and when were you born?
3. How old are you?
5. Have you got a family?
6. How many people are there in your family?
7. Do you have brothers, sisters, grandparents in your family?
8. Where do you live?
9. Did you study well at school?
10. What school did you finish?
11. Did your teacher of English help you to choose your future
profession?
12. What was your favourite subject?
13. What do you like to read?
14. What sport do you go in for?
15. What are you going to be?
16. Do you still live with your parents?
17. Do you have a girlfriend / boyfriend?
Exercise 1.2. Bring a picture of a person you know well (mother, father,
grandfather, friend) to class. Show it and describe that person. Use the
active vocabulary of the unit.
Text B: “MY BIOGRAPHY”
after Mark Twain
I was born on the 30-th of November 1835 in the village of Florida,
Missouri. My father was John Marshal Clemens.
According to tradition some of my great-great parents were pirates and
slave traders — a respectable trade in the 16-th century. In my time I
wished to be a pirate myself.
Florida contained a hundred people and when I was born I increased the
population by one per cent. It had two streets and a lot of lanes. Both
the streets and the lanes were paved (мостить) with the same material —
black mud in wet times, deep dust in dry. Most of the houses were of
wood — there were none of brick and none of stone. Everywhere around
were fields and woods.
My uncle was a farmer. I have never met a better man than he was. He was
a middle-aged man whose head was clear and whose heart was honest and
simple. I stayed at his house for three months every year till I was
thirteen years old. Nowhere else was I happier than at his house. He had
eight children and owned about fourteen Negro slaves whom he had bought
from other farmers. My uncle and everyone on the farm treated the slaves
kindly. All the Negroes on the farm were friends of ours and with those
of our own age we were playmates. Since my childhood I have learned to
like the black race and admire some of its fine qualities. In my school
days nobody told me that it was wrong to sell and buy people. It is only
much later that I realized all the horror of slavery.
The country school was three miles from my uncle’s farm. It stood in a
forest and could take in about twenty five boys and girls. We attended
school once or twice a week. I was a sickly (хилый) child and lived
mainly on medicine the first seven years of my life.
When I was twelve years old my father died. After my father’s death our
family was left penniless. I was taken from school at once and placed in
the office of a local newspaper as printer’s apprentice (подмастерье)
where I could receive board and clothes but no money.
For ten years I worked in printshops of various cities. I started my
journalistic life as a reporter on a newspaper in San-Francisco. It was
then that I began to sign my publications by my penname Mark Twain.
General understanding:
1. In what state was Samuel Clemens born?
2. What were the great-great parents of Mark Twain?
3. What did Mark Twain want to be?
4. What were the streets and lanes of Florida paved with?
5. How does the author describe his uncle?
6. How many slaves did Mark Twain’s uncle own?
7. What was the author’s attitude toward slavery?
8. Was Mark Twain a healthy boy?
9. When did the author start his career of a writer?
GRAMMAR
Неопределенный и определенный артикли. Неопределенный артикль a (an)
происходит от числительного one (один), определенный — от указательного
местоимения that (тот).
Артикль употребляется:
• перед каждым нарицательным существительным.
Если перед существительным артикль не употребляется, то нужно уметь
объяснить, почему.
Артикль не употребляется если перед существительным стоит:
• указательное или притяжательное местоимение,
• другое существительное в притяжательном падеже,
• количественное числительное,
• отрицание no.
Например: This is my book. It’s friend’s book. I have one book.
Упоминая предмет впервые, мы употребляем перед ним неопределенный
артикль а (ап). Упоминая этот же предмет вторично, мы ставим перед ним
определенный артикль the. Например: This is a book. The book is
interesting.
Неопределенный артикль a (an)
употребляется перед единичным, отдельным предметом, который мы не
выделяем из класса ему подобных. Неопределенный артикль an обычно стоит
перед существительным, которое начинается с гласного звука: an apple, an
egg.
Например: I bought a book yesterday. Я купил вчера книгу (одну из многих
ей подобных). I have an apple. У меня есть яблоко (одно, какое-то).
Неопределенный артикль a (an) может употребляться только с исчисляемыми
существительными, стоящими в единственном числе. Перед неисчисляемыми
существительными или существительными во множественном числе
неопределенный артикль опускается.
Неопределенный артикль не употребляется:
а) с неисчисляемыми и «абстрактными» существительными:
I like coffee and tea. Friendship is very important in our life.
б) с существительными во множественном числе:
They are students now.
в) с именами собственными:
I told Jane about that.
г) с существительными, перед которыми стоят притяжательные или
указательные местоимения:
This car is better than that. My bike is old.
д) с существительными, за которыми следует количественное числительное,
обозначающее номер:
I have read page eight of the magazine.
Неопределенный артикль а необходим в конструкциях:
I have a… This is a… I am a… What a fine day! I see a… There is
a… He is a…
Определенный артикль the выделяет предмет или предметы из класса им
подобных:
The book I bought yesterday was interesting — Книга, которую я купил
вчера, была интересной (это — конкретная книга, которую говорящий
выделяет из класса ей подобных).
Определенный артикль the употребляется как с исчисляемыми, так и с
неисчисляемыми существительными, как с единственным, так и с
множественным числом.
Например: This is a book. The book is interesting (исчисляемое в
единственном числе).
This is meat. The meat is fresh, (неисчисляемое)
These are books. The books are good. (множественное число).
Определенный артикль употребляется:
а) когда известно (из контекста, из окружающей обстановки) о каком
предмете (предметах, явлениях) идет речь: Open the door, please. I am
going to the Academy.
б) когда речь идет о единственном в своем роде предмете или явлении: The
moon is shining brightly.
в) когда существительное имеет ограничивающее определение, чаще всего с
предлогом of.
I don’t know the name of this pupil.
г) в словосочетаниях типа in the north, to the west, at the cinema, the
same, in the country, the rest of the…
д) если перед существительным стоит прилагательное в превосходной
степени
This is the most interesting book.
e) перед порядковыми числительными
He lives on the fifth floor.
Географические названия и артикль
С географическими названиями и с именами собственными, артикль, как
правило, не употребляется, кроме следующих случаев:
а) с названиями морей, рек, океанов, горных хребтов, групп островов
используется определенный артикль: the Pacific Ocean, the Black Sea, the
Thames, the British Isles.
б) определенный артикль используется с несколькими названиями стран,
областей и городов, (хотя обычно с этими типами названий артикль не
используется):
the Ukraine, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Netherlands, the Hague, the
Riviera, the Congo, the West Indies
в) определенный артикль используется с названиями стран типа:
the Russian Federation, the United States of America, the United
Kingdom.
г) перед собирательным именем семьи The Petrovs — Петровы
Exercise 1.3. Translate into Russian. Explain the use (использование) of
definite (определенных) and indefinite (неопределенных) articles:
1. Last week I met my friend. He was with a young girl. The girl was a
student of our Academy. 2. This is a pencil. The pencil is red. 3. She
is a teacher. She is our teacher of English. 4. It is a lake. The lake
is deep. It’s one of the deepest lakes in the world. 5. There are many
flowers in your garden. The flowers are beautiful. 6. Did you write a
plan? Give me your plan, please. Is this plan effective? 7. The Black
Sea is in the South of Russia. 8. This is Mike. He works as an engineer.
Mike is a highly qualified engineer. 9. There are some schools in our
street. The schools are new. 10. Gagarin was the first cosmonaut of the
world. 11. In summer the sky is blue and the sun shines brightly. 12.
The Petrovs are very friendly. 13. This is Ann’s book. I don’t like such
books. 14. Winter begins in December.
Exercise 1.4. Insert (вставьте) the article where necessary:
1. This… pencil is broken. Give me that… pencil, please. 2. I can
see three… boys…. boys are playing. 3.1 have… bicycle…. bicycle
is black. My… friend has no… bicycle. 4. Our… room is large. 5. We
wrote… dictation yesterday…. dictation was long. 6. She has
two…daughters and one…son. Her…son is…pupil. 7.
My…brother’s… friend has no… dog. 8. This is… tree…. tree is
green. 9. She has…ball….ball is…big. 10. I got… letter from
my… friend yesterday…. letter was interesting.
Exercise 1.5. Use the articles a, an, the where it is necessary:
1. Yesterday I saw… new film, but… film wasn’t very interesting. 2.
London is situated on… Thames. 3. Yuri Gagarin was… first man to fly
over… Earth in spaceship. 4. My daughter will go school… next year.
5.1 decided to visit… Ivanovs, but they were not at… home 6. In…
summer we live in… country. 7. Lomonosov,… great Russian scientist,
was born in… small village on… shore of… White Sea. 8…. United
States of America is one of… most powerful countries of the world. 9.
Is your dress made of… silk or… cotton? 10…Peter’s brother is…
student and we are…pupils.11. What would you like:… apple or…
orange? 12. What… strange man he is!
Exercise 1.5. Use the articles a, an, the where it is necessary:
I… Volga is… longest river in… Europe. 2….History and…
Literature were… my favourite subjects at… school. 3.What is…
nearest way to… Drama Theatre?4….butter and… cheese are made of…
milk. 5. Usually I get up at… 7 o’clock in… morning. 6…Rostov is
situated on… Don. 7. Will you have… cup of… tea? 8.What… good
friend you are! 9. We shall go to…cinema… next week together with…
Petrovs. 10. This is… book,… book is very interesting. 11. Do you
see… sun in… sky today? 12.He is… engineer by… profession.
Exercise 1.6. Insert (вставьте) the article where necessary:
Three men came to… New York for… holiday. They came to… very large
hotel and took… room there. Their room was on… forty-fifth floor.
In… evening… friends went to… theatre and came back to… hotel
very late.
«I am very sorry,» said… clerk of… hotel, «but… lifts do not work
tonight. If you don’t want to walk up to your room, we shall make…
beds for you in… hall.» «No, no,» said one of… friends, «no, thank
you. We don’t want to sleep in… hall. We shall walk up to our room.»
Then he turned to his friends and said: «It is not easy to walk up to…
forty-fifth floor, but we shall make it easier. On… way to… room I
shall tell you some jokes; then you, Andy, will sing us some songs; then
you, Peter, will tell us some interesting stories.» So they began
walking up to their room. Tom told them many jokes; Andy sang some
songs.
At last they came to… thirty sixth floor. They were tired and decided
to have… rest. «Well,» said Tom, «now it is your turn, Peter. After
all… jokes, I would like to hear… sad story. Tell us… long and
interesting story with…sad end.» «… story which I am going to tell
you,» said Peter, «is sad enough. We left… key to our room in…hall.»
Образование множественного числа имен существительных.
Множественное число существительных (кроме тех, у которых основа
оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -х) образуется путем прибавления к
основе окончания -s: a boy — boys, a trick — tricks, a pen —pens, a girl
— girls.
Множественное число существительных, основа которых оканчивается на -ch,
-s, -ss, -sh, -x, а также существительных, имеющих, как правило,
окончание -о, образуется путем прибавления к основе окончания -es; a
bench — benches, a bus- buses, a glass — glasses, a box — boxes, a
potato — potatoes.
Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после согласной) во множественном
числе имеют окончание -ies: an army — armies, a fly — flies, a lady —
ladies. Конечное f(-fe), как правило, меняется на -ves:
a calf — calves, a knife — knives, a shelf — shelves,
a wife — wives (но: roof — roofs).
Ряд существительных образует множественное число не по общим правилам:
а) изменяется корневая гласная:
a man – men, a woman – women, a foot – feet, a tooth – teeth, a goose –
geese, a mouse – mice
б) добавляется окончание -en:
an ox — oxen. a child — children.
в) заимствуются формы единственного и множественного числа из латинского
и греческого языков:
a formula – formulae (formulas), a crisis – crises, a criterion –
criteria, an index – indices, a bacterium — bacteria, an axis — axes
В английском языке есть существительные, которые имеют одну (общую)
форму для единственного и множественного числа: a deer (олень) – deer
(олени), a sheep (овца) – sheep (овцы), a fish рыба) – fish (рыбы), a
swine (свинья) – swine (свиньи).
Некоторые существительные имеют только единственное число: advice,
information, news. knowledge, furniture, luggage.
Некоторые – только множественное число, clothes, riches, damages, goods,
looks, manners, thanks.
Запомните:
this is — these are
that is -— those are
there is — there are
it is — they are
Exercise 1.7. Decide which of the following nouns are countable
(исчисляемые) or uncountable (неисчисляемые):
Time, water, machine, music, snow, word, coffee, money, idea, family,
darkness, knowledge, sea hour. tree, silver, meat, happiness,
information, speed, book, news, house, friend, milk, student, pen,
paper, clothes picture, air, goods.
Exercise 1.8. Read and translate the sentences. Decide which of the
underlined nouns (существительных) are countable or uncountable and
explain why:
1. We have read all the official papers. There were some sheets of paper
on the table. 2.Two coffees, please. I like strong coffee. 3. Give me
two glasses. Are they made of glass or plastics? 4. Many thousands of
bricks are produced at the factory. Our school is built of brick.
Exercise 1.9. Write down the following nouns in plural.
Box, sheep, place, library, photo, mouse, lady, glass, bush, dress,
country, bus, party, wife, day, knife, knowledge, month, pen, hero,
goose, company, life, deer, tomato, city, man, play, news, child, fruit,
shelf, leaf, foot, fish, woman, money, information.
Exercise 1.10. Write down the following nouns in plural:
A star, a mountain, a tree, a waiter, the queen, a man, a woman, an eye,
a shelf, a box, a city, a boy, a goose, a watch, a mouse, a dress, a
toy, a sheep, a tooth, a child, an ox, a deer, a life, a tomato.
Exercise 1.11. Write down the following nouns in plural:
this man, that match, this tea-cup, this egg, that wall, that picture,
this foot, that mountain, this lady, that window, this knife
Exercise 1.12. Put the following sentences in plural and write them
down. Pay attention to the changes of the verb (глагол):
1. A new house is in our street. 2. This story is very interesting. 3.
There was a woman, a man, a boy and a girl in the room. 4. In the
farm-yard we could see an ox, a sheep, a cow and a goose. 5. Put this
knife on that table. 6. Why don’t you eat this potato? 7. This
strawberry is still green. 8. A yellow leaf has fallen to the ground. 9.
Can you see a bird in that tree? 10. Does your tooth still ache? 11. I
held up my foot to the fire to warm it. 12. His child studies very well.
13. Is this worker an Englishman or a German? — He is a Frenchman. 14.
What is that child’s name? 15. The cat has caught a mouse. 16. I have
hurt my foot. 17. The wolf has been shot. 18. He keeps his toy in a box.
19. This man works at our office.
Exercise 1.13. Put the following sentences in plural and write them
down. Pay attention to the changes of the verb:
1. This is my stocking. 2. He has a new suit. 3. This metal is very
hard. 4. That ship is a Russian one. 5. I heard her voice. 6. His dog
does not like bread. 7. The plate was on the table. 8. This town is very
large. 9. I was talking to her at the tram stop yesterday. 10. Is that
girl your sister? 11. I shall give you my book. 12. This story will be a
good one. 13. Is this a good match? 14. The boy put his book on the
desk. 15. She took off her hat. 16. That house is new. 17. The pupil put
his book into the bag. 18. Is this student coming with us, too? 19. The
woman didn’t say anything. 20. Does she speak English?
Притяжательный падеж существительных
Examples: The child’s toys — The children’s toys
The boy’s books — The boys’ books
Exercise 1.14. Use the Possessive Case of the Nouns:
Example: The poems of Lermontov. (Lermontov’s poems).
1. The toy of their children. 2. The questions of my son. 3. The wife of
my brother. 4. The table of our teacher. 5. The life of animals. 6. The
voice of this girl. 7. The new tool of the workers. 8. The letter of
Peter. 9. The car of my parents. 10 The room of my friend. 11. The
handbags of these women. 12. The flat of my sister is large. 13. The
children of my brother are at home. 14. The room of the boys is large.
Exercise 1.15. Translate into English.
1. Это семья моего друга. Отец моего друга — инженер. Мать моего друга —
учитель. 2. Она взяла книги своего брата. 3. Дайте мне тетради ваших
учеников. 4. Вы видели книгу нашего учителя? 5. Вчера дети моего брата
ходили в кино. 6. Он показал мне письмо своей сестры. 7. Чья это сумка?
— Это сумка Петра. 8. Чьи это словари? — Это словари студентов. 9.
Принесите игрушки детей.
UNIT 2
MY WORKING DAY
I. Гласные звуки [е], [ae].
II. Text A: «My working day»,
Text B: «Nick’s usual working day».
III. Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий, порядок слов в
английском предложении, типы вопросов.
Гласный звук [е]
При произнесении гласного [е] масса языка находится в передней части
ротовой полости. Кончик языка находится у нижних зубов. Губы слегка
растянуты. Звук близок к русскому звуку [э] в словах эти, жесть.
Гласный звук [ae]
При произнесении звука [ae] губы несколько растянуты, нижняя челюсть
сильно опущена, кончик языка касается нижних зубов, а средняя спинка
языка немного выгибается вперед и кверху.
Exercise A
am — Ann — lamp
man — can — cat
sat — hat — bat
Pat — rat — camtanned — tent
fan— fen
man — men
pat — petExercise В
tan — ten
pan — pen
bad — bed
land — lendExercise C
bat — bet
pet — net — red
let — met
ten — pen —• men — hen
Text A: «MY WORKING DAY»
Hi again… As you already know, I am a first-year student of the
Technical Academy. My parents live in Sochi and I study in Rostov-on-Don
so I need some housing. There are two opportunities for me: I can live
in a dormitory (a students hostel), or to rent a flat (an apartment).
I decided to rent a flat. To make the rent smaller, I also decided to
share my flat with another girl — Natasha Kozlova. She studies at the
Academy, too, and she is my best friend now. I’ll tell you more about
her later.
Now, let me describe my usual working day. My classes begin at 8:30. So
on week-days I have to get up at 7:15.1 don’t have an alarm clock and
usually my roommate wakes me up and my working day begins. I turn on the
radio and do my morning exercises while Natasha takes a shower. I don’t
take a bath in the morning because I don’t have enough time for it. I
take a cool shower (that’s when I completely wake up), brush my teeth.
After that I go back to our room and get dressed. I brush my hair and
put on a light make-up. Then we have breakfast. Natasha makes breakfast
every Monday, Wednesday and Friday. I have to serve breakfast on
Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays. I love to listen to the latest news
on the radio while I am eating and Natasha prefers light music.
We leave the house at ten minutes past eight and walk to the nearest
bus-stop. We live rather far from the Academy and it usually takes us
about a quarter of an hour to get there by bus. Sometimes when the
weather is fine and we have enough time we walk to the Academy. It is
very healthy to walk much.
The classes begin at 8:30 in the morning and they end at 2:00 p.m. We
have lectures in different subjects. As a rule we have three or four
classes a day. Sometimes it is very hard to wait till they end.
Usually I don’t miss my classes because I want to pass my exams
successfully. But sometimes I do, especially when the weather is fine
and the classes are boring.
At 11:50 we have lunch. That’s my favourite time. That is the time to
share the latest news and to gossip. My friends and I prefer not to go
to the canteen and we often have lunch in a small cafe not too far from
the Academy. At 12:30 we have to be back to our classes. During the
working day we also have several short breaks that last for ten minutes.
Occasionally I have to stay at the Academy till 5 or even 6 o’clock in
the evening because I go to the library to get ready for my practical
classes or to write a report. As a rule I have no free time on
week-days. So by the end of the week I get very tired.
We come home at about 7 o’clock in the evening. We eat supper together
and share the latest news.
After supper we wash dishes, drink coffee or tea and watch TV. I prefer
old comedies and Natasha likes serials or films about travelling.
Sometimes Natasha and I go for a walk in the park or visit our friends.
At about eleven at night I go to bed. I like to read something before
going to bed and Natasha likes to listen to some music. Sometimes I fall
asleep while I am reading and Natasha gets up and switches off the light
and says — Good night!
Vocabulary:
housing — жилье
opportunity — возможность
dormitory, students hostel — студенческое общежитие
to rent a flat (an apartment) — снимать квартиру
to share — делить(-ся)
week-days — будние дни
alarm clock — будильник
usually — обычно
roommate — сосед по комнате
rather — довольно
to turn on (off) — включать, выключать
enough — достаточно
completely — полностью, совершенно
to get dressed — одеваться
to serve — обслуживать
make up — макияж
while — пока, в то время как
to prefer — предпочитать
healthy — здоровый, полезный
to miss — пропускать
successfully — успешно
boring — скучный
to gossip — сплетничать
have to be back — должны вернуться
break — перерыв
report — доклад
share — делиться
canteen — столовая
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY
tape-recorder — магнитофон
to brush one’s hair — причесывать волосы
it takes me… minutes to get to the Academy by bus —у меня уходит…
минут, чтобы добраться до Академии на автобусе
cloackroom — гардероб
upstairs — наверху, вверх по лестнице
downstairs — внизу, вниз по лестнице
to miss classes — пропускать занятия
to pass exams — сдать экзамены
to do well — делать успехи, хорошо учиться
for the first (second) course — на первое (второе) блюдо
to get ready — подготовиться
as a rule — как правило
to get tired — устать
to take pleasure in — получать удовольствие от…
to look forward to — ждать с нетерпением
acquaintance — знакомый
Exercise 2.1. Write one sentence with each word:
1. Usual — usually — as usual — unusual
2. occasion — occasional — occasionally
3. to end — to finish — to be over
4. to start — to begin — to get ready for
5. on Sunday — at five o’clock — in cafeteria…
6. full time student — part time student
7. freshman — second year student — school graduate
Exercise 2.2. Translate into English:
• быть студентом (студенткой) дневного отделения
• рассказать вам о…
• в будние дни
• просыпаться — вставать в 7 часов утра
• включать магнитофон
• принимать душ
• чистить зубы
• одеваться
• слушать последние новости
• У меня уходит час, чтобы добраться до института
• ездить на автобусе (троллейбусе, трамвае)
• опаздывать на занятия
• заканчиваться в 15:50 вечера
• пропускать занятия
• сдать экзамены успешно
• время от времени
• подготовиться к занятиям
• как правило
• устать
• приходить домой
• быть дома
• иметь свободное время
Exercise 2.3. Tell about your typical day. The following questions will
help you:
1. Do you get up early?
2. Is it easy for you to get up early?
3. Do you wake up yourself or does your alarm-clock wake you up?
4. Do you do your morning exercises?
5. What do you prefer: a hot or a cold shower in the morning?
6. How long does it take you to get dressed?
7. What do you usually have for breakfast?
8. Some people look through newspapers or listen to the latest news on
the radio while having breakfast. What about you?
9. When do you usually leave your house?
10. Do you work? If yes, where?
11. How long does it take you to get to your Academy (Institute)?
12. Do you go there by bus/trolley-bus or walk?
13. Where do you usually have lunch (dinner)?
14. What time do you come home?
15. How long does it take you to do your homework?
16. How do you usually spend your evenings?
17. Do you have a lot of free time?
18. Do you play any musical instrument?
19. Are you fond of listening to music?
20. What kind of music do you prefer?
21. Do you collect anything (stamps, records, postcards, coins,
matchboxes, etc.)?
22. What time do you usually go to bed?
Exercise 2.4. Tell about:
a) the working-day of your father or mother
b) the usual weekend at home
c) the best day of your life
d) a holiday spent with your friends or relatives (New Year’s day,
Christmas, 8th of March)
e) the working day of famous people (writers, artists, politicians etc.)
Text В: «NICK’S USUAL WORKING DAY»
Hi, nice to meet you all!
My name is Nick Price. I am a freshman at MIT — Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. I am not from Boston myself. I was born in Vermilion,
Ohio, not far from Cleveland.
My family is not very rich, that is why I can’t afford to live on a
campus. But it is a rule, that every student must reside during his or
her freshman year on the campus. To cover some of the expenses I’ve got
to work part-time on the campus. I work in cafeteria.
Now let me tell you about my usual working day. I wake up at seven in
the morning. My alarm-clock radio is tuned to my favourite radio
station. My roommate Todd Hall is a football player. He jogs every
morning at 6:30. He is still out jogging when I get up. First I take a
cold shower and brush my teeth. Then I dress myself up and rush to work
— to the University cafeteria. I wash dishes and clean the tables. It is
not a very interesting job, I know that, but soon I’ll be a cook and
will earn more. My boss Suzie is very strict but very nice when you do
your job properly.
My first class starts at 11:15. The professor is never late for his
classes. The lecture hall we sit in has about 100 seats. MIT is a very
big school. I think that it is the best school of science and technology
in the US.
At 2:00 p.m. I eat lunch at school cafeteria. The food is free for me
because I work there. I am a vegetarian and I don’t like drinks with
caffeine. I prefer cool filtered water or juice.
Then I have two more classes. I need to go to the library right after
the classes to do my homework. There I meet my friends and we talk a
lot. Twice a week I play basketball with my friends. I swim once a week.
Usually after library we go out to the cafe or just sit outside and
talk.
I have dinner at 6:00 p.m. at the little Chinese restaurant not too far
from the dormitory or I cook myself in the kitchen in my dorm. My
favourite food is salami pizza and potato salad.
After dinner I watch TV or play ping-pong with my friends. When it is
Friday, we go to the football game.
I usually read before I go to bed. It calms me down after the long day.
I guess, that’s pretty much it for now. See you later!
General understanding:
1. Where does Nick Price study?
2. What year of study is he in?
3. Is Nick from Boston?
4. Is Nick’s family a rich one?
5. What is Nick’s job? Do you think he enjoys it?
6. Is Massachusetts Institute of Technology a good school?
7. Where does Nick spend his evenings?
8. What does Nick usually do on Friday nights?
GRAMMAR
§ 1. Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий
1. Односложные (и некоторые двусложные) прилагательные и наречия
образуют сравнительную степень путем прибавления суффикса -еr,
превосходную — путем прибавления суффикса -est:
high — higher — the highest (высокий — выше — самый высокий),
big — bigger — the biggest (большой — больше — самый большой).
Прилагательные и наречия, оканчивающиеся на -у, меняют окончание на -ier
и -iest.
Конечная согласная у односложных прилагательных и наречий удваивается.
Например: happy — happier — the happiest. hot — hotter — the hottest
2. Многосложные прилагательные и наречия, оканчивающиеся на -1у,
образуют
сравнительную степень путем прибавления слов more (less),
превосходную — путем прибавления слов most (least)
interesting — more (less) interesting — most (least) interesting,
easily — more (less) easily — most (least) easily.
3. Ряд прилагательных и наречий являются исключениями:
good, well (хороший, хорошо) — better (лучше) — the best (самый
хороший),
bad (плохой) — worse (хуже) — the worst (самый плохой)
little (маленький, мало) — less (меньше) — the least (наименьший)
many (much) — more — the most
far — farther (further) — the farthest (furthest)
Существительное, определяемое прилагательным в превосходной степени,
всегда имеет определенный артикль: the largest building.
Exercise 2.5. Make up comparative and superlative forms of the listed
below adjectives (прилагательные) and adverbs (наречия):
1. large, tall, long, easy, hot, big, cold, nice, bad, strong, short,
wide, good, happy, high, low, busy, well, little, many, far.
2. wonderful, necessary, quickly, interesting, comfortable, popular,
active, famous, pleasant, beautiful, slowly, clearly.
Exercise 2.6. Open the brackets using the right form of adjectives:
1. Winter is (cold) season of the year. 2. Moscow is (large) than St.
Petersburg. 3. Which is (long) day of the year? 4. The Alps are (high)
mountains in Europe. 5. Even (long) day has an end. 6. It is one of
(important) questions of our conference. 7. Your English is (good) now.
8. Who knows him (well) than you? 9. We have (little) interest in this
work than you. 10. Health is (good) than wealth. 11. Your son worked
(well) of all. 12. Today you worked (slowly) than usually.
Exercise 2.7. Translate the sentences:
1. This book is not so interesting as that one. 2. The Baltic Sea is not
so warm as the Black Sea. 3. The more you read, the more you know. 4. My
brother is not as tall as you are. 5. The earlier you get up, the more
you can do. 6. Today the wind is as strong as it was yesterday. 7. Your
room is as light as mine. 8. John knows Russian as well as English. 9.
Mary is not so lazy as her brother. 10. The longer the night is, the
shorter the day. 11. The less people think, the more they talk.
Exercise 2.8. Translate the sentences:
1. Лев Толстой — один из самых популярных писателей в мире.
2. Этот роман интереснее, чем тот.
3. Ваш дом выше нашего? Нет, он такой же высокий, как и ваш.
4. Это — самая прекрасная картина во всей коллекции.
5. Население Российской Федерации больше населения Великобритании.
6. Он выполнил работу быстрее, чем вы.
7. Австралия — одна из наименее населенных стран.
8. Его работа лучше вашей, но работа Анны — самая лучшая.
9. Россия — самая большая страна в мире.
10. Я живу не так далеко от института, как мой друг.
11. В июле столько же дней, сколько и в августе.
12. Самолет быстрее, чем поезд.
§ 2. Порядок слов в английском предложении
В английском предложении каждый член предложения, как правило, имеет
свое определенное место. Так, в простом распространенном
повествовательном предложении на первом месте стоит
1) подлежащее, за ним следует
2) сказуемое, далее идет
3) дополнение (беспредложное, прямое, предложное) и затем
4) обстоятельства (образа действия, места, времени).
Например: 1) I 2) gave 3) my brother 3) a book 4) yesterday.
Exercise 2.9. Build the sentences from the words:
a) Is, best, she, friend, my.
b) Learn, different, students, our, subjects.
c) The, is, Russia, the, in, country, largest, world.
d) In, the, we, city, live, a, flat, in, of, center, the.
e) Reading, is, my, of, best, son’s, fond, friend.
§ 3. Основные типы вопросов, используемые в английском языке
1. Общий вопрос
Общий вопрос относится ко всему предложению в целом, и ответом на него
будут слова yes или по:
Do you like ice-cream? — Yes, I do.
Can you speak English? — Yes, I can.
Are you a schoolboy? — No, I am not.
Have you bought a text book? — Yes, I have.
Порядок слов в общем вопросе
1) вспомогательный глагол (модальный, глагол-связка),
2) подлежащее (существительное или местоимение),
3) смысловой глагол (или дополнение).
2. Специальный вопрос
Специальный вопрос относится к какому-нибудь члену предложения или их
группе и требует конкретного ответа:
What is your name? — My name is Peter.
Where do you live? — I live in Rostov.
Порядок слов в специальном вопросе
1) вопросительное слово (what, where, who, when, how и т.д.),
2) вспомогательный глагол (модальный, глагол-связка),
3) подлежащее,
4) смысловой глагол,
5) дополнения,
6) обстоятельства (места, времени, образа действия и т.д.).
В специальных вопросах, обращенных к подлежащему в Present и Past
Indefinite, не употребляется вспомогательный глагол do (did) и
сохраняется прямой порядок слов:
Who wants to go to the cinema? Who lives in this house?
3. Альтернативный вопрос
Альтернативный вопрос предполагает выбор из двух возможностей:
Do you like coffee or tea? — Вы любите кофе или чай?
Альтернативный вопрос начинается как общий вопрос, затем следует
разделительный союз or и вторая часть вопроса.
4. Разделительный вопрос (Tail Question)
Разделительный вопрос состоит из двух частей. Первая часть — это
повествовательное предложение (утвердительное или отрицательное),
вторая, отделенная запятой от первой — краткий вопрос (tail —
«хвостик»):
You are a pupil, aren’t you? — Вы ученик, не правда ли?
Если в повествовательной части разделительного вопроса содержится
утверждение, то во второй — отрицание. Если в повествовательной части —
отрицание, то во второй части, как правило, — утверждение:
You are a student, aren’t you?
You don’t go to school every day, do you?
Exercise 2.10. Read and translate into English:
1. She is a student.
— Is she a student?
— Yes, she is. / No, she isn’t.
2. He speaks English well.
— Does he speak English well?
— Yes, he does. / No, he doesn’t.
3. They have many books.
— Have they many books?
— Yes, they have. / No, they haven’t.
4. The weather was fine yesterday.
— Was the weather fine yesterday?
— Yes, it was. / No, it wasn’t.
5. We saw a new film yesterday.
— Did we see a new film yesterday?
— Yes, we did. / No, we didn’t.
6. You can read well.
— Can you read well?
— Yes, you can. / No, you can’t.
7. There will be five lessons tomorrow.
— Will there be five lessons tomorrow?
—Yes, there will. / No, there will not (won’t).
Exercise 2.11. Put the questions to the following sentences:
1. общие
2. специальные
3. разделительные
1. There is a book on the table. 2. He must work hard today. 3. We are
leaving for Moscow next week. 4. We were reading the whole evening. 5.
They don’t go to work on Sunday. 6. It is not cold today. 7. Ann has
already begun to read a new book. 8. We learn English at school. 9. They
will show you how to get there. 10. They finished the translation before
the end of the lesson. 11. I didn’t feel well that evening. 12. It
wasn’t difficult to do this task.
Exercise 2.12. Read and translate the sentences:.
1. Our family lives in a three-room flat.
— Does your family live in a three-room flat or in a house?
— It lives in a three-room flat.
2. They went to the same school.
— Did they go to the same school or to different schools?
— They went to the same school.
3. He will read this book tomorrow.
— Will he read this text tomorrow or next week?
— He will read it tomorrow.
4. They are playing chess now.
— Are they playing chess or cards now?
— They are playing chess.
5. Our teacher has told us to write.
— Has our teacher told us to write or to read?
— He has told us to write.
Exercise 2.13. Translate the sentences into English:
1. Вам нравится больше английский язык или французский?
2. Он живет в Ростове или в области?
3. Она его младшая или старшая сестра?
4. Студенты уже сдали экзамены или нет?
5. Петровы поедут летом на юг или на север?
6. Ваш друг учится в академии или в университете?
7. Он знает ее лучше или вы?
Exercise 2.14. Write down alternative questions to the following
sentences:
1. Our teacher knows several foreign languages. 2. He has graduated from
our University last year. 3. We shall go to Samara next week. 4. They
are working in our garden. 5. I have just read this book. 6. I took this
book from my friend. 7. He likes reading books. 8. She has many
relatives abroad. 9. They were in many countries. 10. Russia is the
largest country in the world.
UNIT 3
MY ACADEMY
I. Гласные звуки [а:], [], дифтонги [э], [ei].
II. Text A: «My Academy»,
Text В: «Moscow Slate University».
III. §1. Безличные и неопределенно-личные предложения.
§2. Неопределенные местоимения some, any, отрицательное местоимение по и
их производные.
Гласный звук [а:]
При произнесении английского гласного [а:] рот открыт почти как для
русского звука, но язык отодвигается дальше назад и книзу и лежит
плоско. Кончик языка оттянут от нижних зубов. Губы не растянуты и не
выдвинуты вперед.
Гласный звук []
При произнесении краткого гласного [], губы немножко растянуты, язык
отодвинут назад, несколько глубже, чем для русского звука [а]. Кончик
языка находится у нижних зубов, напоминает русский звук [а] в словах
камыш, сады, валы.
Дифтонг [э]. Ядро звука — гласный похожий на русский звук в слове это.
Скольжение происходит в направлении нейтрального гласного с оттенком
звука.
Дифтонг [ei]. Дифтонг, ядром которого является гласный, а скольжение
происходит в направлении гласного. Произнося дифтонг необходимо следить
за тем, чтобы ядро не было таким широким, как русский гласный [э], а
второй элемент не превращался в русский звук [й].
Exercise Acare — dare — raredate — may — paycar — far — barfare — fair —
hairlay — hay — Rayhalf — calf — bathExercise Dpart — park —
fartExercise Сus — buscart — barter — sharktape — hate — batetub —
mudspark — bath — markmate — plate — Katemust — sumpark — raft —
plantlate — fate — ratehumble — tumbleExercise Вbrave — maple — mainsun
— huntmare — air — pairpain — name — daytrust — last
Text A: «ANN’S ACADEMY»
Hello again! Now let me tell you about my Polytechnical Academy. I am
really glad that I study here. It is one of the finest country’s higher
educational institutions. Many famous people have graduated from my
Academy, and not only engineers or scientists, but many outstanding
writers, actors, showmen and politicians. Studying at our Academy gives
a solid background in all spheres of knowledge and prepares for
practical work.
Our Academy is quite large and old. It was founded in the 19th century
by the famous Russian inventor Vladimir Komarov. First, it was a small
department of a large University, but later it was rearranged into an
independent institution. Nowadays it is a large school where more than
5,000 students are currently enrolled. About 3,000 are full-time
students, like me, and the rest are part time-students. There are also
about 150 graduate students. They conduct independent research work and
have pedagogical practice.
The course of study at my academy lasts five years. There are many
faculties in my academy. Here are some of them: the faculty of
industrial automation and robotics, the faculty of plastics, the faculty
of machine tools and the faculty of metalworking.
Our academy is large and we have several buildings. One of the buildings
is for lectures and seminars only. There are many large halls there so
that students of 3-4 groups together can fit in there. And that is more
than 100 people. The acoustics [э’ku:stiks] in such large halls is very
good but sometimes it is very noisy when students chat during the
lecture.
We have two laboratory buildings which are equipped with up-to-date
equipment and there students can carry on lab works and conduct various
experiments. Many students from my group do their own research work.
There are several cafes at the academy. My favourite one is situated in
a separate one-storeyed building and people say that this is the oldest
canteen or student’s cafe. The food there is tasty and very affordable.
There are also several dormitories or hostel buildings where students
from other cities live. But you know already that I don’t live in a
dormitory — I rent an apartment.
Vocabulary:
currently — в настоящее время
to be enrolled — числиться в списках студентов
full-time students — студенты дневного отделения
part time-students — студенты вечернего отделения
to conduct — проводить
course of study — курс обучения
industrial automation — промышленная автоматика
robotics — робототехника
plastics — пластмассы
machine-tools — станки
metalworking — металлообработка
figure [f’igэ] — фигура, цифра
noisy — шумный
to chat — беседовать, болтать
to be equipped with — быть оборудованным
up-to-date equipment — современное оборудование
carry on — проводить
research work — исследовательская работа
one-storeyed — одноэтажное
tasty [‘teisti] — вкусный
affordable — доступная (to afford — позволять)
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY
classroom — класс, аудитория
lecture hall — лекционный зал
laboratory — лаборатория
gym (gymnasium) — спортзал
semester (term) — семестр
school year — учебный год
course of studies — курс обучения
academy — академия
university — университет
institute — институт
faculty, college, department — факультет (ex. College of physics —
факультет физики)
department, chair of… — кафедра
head of the department, chief of the department, chair (man, woman) —
зав. кафедрой
substitute — заместитель
teaching instructor (TI) — преподаватель
professor — профессор
dean — декан
Rector — ректор
teaching staff, faculty members — преподавательский состав
full-time student — студент(ка) дневного отделения
part-time student — студент(ка) «вечерник»
student of distant education — студент(ка) «заочник»
student of preparatory courses — слушатель подкурсов, «подкурсник»
undergraduate student — студент 1-4(5) курсов
graduate student — студент 5-6 курсов (магистрант, аспирант)
Exercise 3.1. Tell about:
a) your secondary school (college)
b) the faculty of your university
c) your favourite teacher at school.
Exercise 3.2. Do you know?
1) When was your University or Academy established?
2) Who was the first Rector?
3) Were there any famous a) scientists, engineers b) politicians c)
artists among the graduates of your Institute?
4) How many people are currently enrolled?
5) What is the most popular faculty in your Academy?
Exercise 3.3. Do you agree or disagree with the following statements:
a) Larger schools are better than smaller ones.
b) It is impossible to enter the university if you haven’t attended
preparatory courses.
c) The best professors are the oldest ones.
d) It is better to live in a dormitory or student hostel than to rent an
apartment.
e) Professors always know more than students and teaching instructors.
Text B: «MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY»
Moscow State University is the oldest, autonomous, self-governing and
state-supported institution of higher learning, founded in 1755 by the
scientist Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. Located in Moscow, the
university is composed of faculties of biology, chemistry, computational
mathematics and cybernetics, economics, foreign languages, fundamental
medicine, geography, geology, history, journalism, law, mechanics and
mathematics, physics, psychology, sociology, and soil sciences, as well
as an institute of Asian and African Studies. Several museums, colleges,
and a number of institutes are affiliated with Moscow University, and a
preparatory faculty teaches Russian language and other subjects to
foreign students.
Except for the science faculties and some of the arts faculties — which
are situated in south-western Moscow — the remainder of the faculties
are located in the older university buildings in the centre of the city.
A diploma in a given field of study is awarded after five or five and a
half years of study. After three additional years and the completion of
a thesis, the kandidat nauk degree is awarded. The highest degree, the
Doctor of Sciences, may be attained upon completion of a thesis based on
independent research.
GRAMMAR
А) Безличные и неопределенно-личные предложения.
Английские предложения отличаются от русских тем, что в них всегда есть
подлежащее и сказуемое. Поэтому в безличных предложениях, когда нет
подлежащего, используется в качестве формального подлежащего местоимение
it.
It is cold today. Сегодня холодно.
Как видим, безличные предложения такого типа состоят из местоимения it,
которое не переводится, глагола-связки в нужном по смыслу времени и
именной части сказуемого, выраженного чаще всего именем прилагательным.
Именная часть может быть также выражена именем существительным или
именем числительным.
It’s nice to meet you. Приятно познакомиться.
It is nine o’clock now. Сейчас девять часов.
Очень часто безличные предложения описывают явление природы, состояние
погоды, обозначают время, расстояние.
Вопросительная и отрицательная формы безличных предложений образуются по
тем же правилам, что и вопросительные и отрицательные формы предложений
с именным составным сказуемым.
Is it cold? — Холодно?
Wasn’t it interesting? — Разве это не было интересно?
Частица not ставится после первого вспомогательного глагола.
Exercise 3.4. Переведите на английский язык.
1. Сегодня холодно. 2. Идет снег целый день. 3. Сейчас утро. 4. Было
приятно познакомиться с вашим другом. 5. Поздно. Пора спать. 6. Разве
это не смешно? 7. Сейчас уже 10 часов утра. 8. На улице холодно? 9.
Сейчас ранняя весна, но уже тепло. 10. Это далеко отсюда?
В) Неопределенные местоимения some. any. отрицательное местоимение по и
их производные.
Употребление some и any, а также их производных определяется типом
предложения.
В утвердительном предложении употребляются, как правило, местоимение
some и его производные:
Give me something to read, please. I met him somewhere before.
В вопросительных и отрицательных предложениях обычно используются
местоимение any и его производные:
Have you seen him anywhere? Is there anything I can do for you?
В отрицательных предложениях используется либо местоимение any и его
производные:
I cannot find this book anywhere.
либо отрицательное местоимение по
There is nobody in that room. There isn’t anybody in that room.
Различия между местоимениями any и some — в степени неопределенности,
поэтому иногда местоимение any можно встретить и в утвердительных
предложениях:
You can find this book anywhere. — Эту книгу вы можете найти где угодно.
Exercise 3.5. Make 16 pronouns and translate them:
Образец: some + body = somebody — кто-то, кто-нибудь
some body
any one
no thing
every where
Exercise 3.6. Insert somebody, anybody, nobody or everybody:
l. The question was so difficult that… could answer it. 2…. left his
bag in our classroom yesterday. 3. Has… in this group got a
dictionary? 4. I am afraid there is… in the office now. It is too
late. 5…. knows that water is necessary for plants. 6. Is there…
here who knows English? 7. You must find… who can help you. 6…. knew
anything about our home task. 9…. can answer this question. It is very
easy. 10. There is… in the next room. I don’t know him. 11. Please
tell us the story,… knows it. 12. Is there… in my group who lives in
the hostel? 13. Has… here got a red pencil?
Exercise 3.7. Translate into English:
1. Тут есть кто-нибудь? 2. В саду никого нет. 3. В нашей комнате есть
кто-нибудь? 4. В классе есть кто-то. 5. Там никого нет. 6. В саду есть
кто-нибудь? 7. На столе есть что-нибудь? — Нет, там ничего нет. 8. В
сумке что-то есть. 9. В этой книге есть что-нибудь интересное? 10. На
стене есть какие-нибудь картины? — Да, там есть несколько. 11. В
кабинете директора есть кто-нибудь? — Нет, там никого нет. 12. В нашей
библиотеке есть какие-то книги на английском языке. 13. В вашей
библиотеке есть какие-нибудь книги на английском языке? 14. Мой друг не
хочет мне ничего сказать. 15. Я хочу провести летние каникулы где-нибудь
на берегу Черного моря. 16. Если вы голодны, поищите что-нибудь в
холодильнике. 17. Расскажите нам все о вашем путешествии. 18. Никто
нигде не помог ему.
UNIT 4
MY HOME TOWN
I. Гласные звуки [u:], [u].
II. Text A: «Sochi».
Text B: «Rostov-on-Don».
II1.§1. Местоимения little и few и местоименные выражения a little и a
few.
§2. Оборот there is / there are.
Гласный звук [u:]
При произнесении долгого гласного звука [u:] губы напряжены и сильно
округлены, но гораздо меньше выдвинуты вперед, чем при русском звуке
[у]: moon. На письме передается буквосочетанием двойное О, за
исключением случаев перед буквой k.
Например: soon — скоро, вскоре, moon — луна
Исключение: book — книга (краткое и)
Гласный звук [u]
При произнесении краткого гласного звука [u] губы заметно округлены, но
не выдвинуты вперед, язык оттянут назад, но несколько меньше, чем для и:
(u долгого). Звук напоминает безударный русский звук [у] в словах
пустой, тупой, произнесенный без выдвижения губ вперед:
hook — крюк, look — взгляд
Запомните слова, в которых в качестве исключения произносится [u]: put —
класть, pull — тянуть, push — толкать, full — полный
Exercise AExercise СExercise Dtoo — tooth — food
boot — fool — foot
soon — spoon — tooth
boot — mood — shookfool — pool — hook
fool — too — book
cook — boot — loop
foot — cool — moodpull (тянуть) — pool (бассейн)
tool (инструмент) — full (полный)Exercise Вshook – soon – spoon –
moontook — shook — nookhook — look — cook
Text A: «SOCHI»
«Big Sochi — the best place on the Earth!»
Hello, everyone! Here is Ann Sokolova again. This time I’ll tell you
about my lovely hometown — Sochi. I am sure everyone knows where Sochi
is. For those who are not really sure I remind that it is situated on
the Black Sea coast about 1500 km south from Moscow.
But what makes this city so special? Sochi is called the city of three
seasons because there’s no winter here. As we usually say, «the golden
autumn slowly turns into the early spring.» When golden leaves slowly
fall down on the earth the first flowers begin to blossom. Sochi is the
only northern subtropical city in Russia. One can bathe in the Black Sea
from May till October because the water of the Black Sea is still warm.
The water of the Black Sea contains many chemical substances such as
iodine, chlorine, bromine, sulphates, carbonates, sodium, potassium,
etc. All of them react with your body and make you healthier. There are
many mineral water springs in Sochi and its area.
Have you ever heard the name Big Sochi? Sochi is one of the most
stretched cities along the sea coast — it is 148 km long! Small towns
and cities Adler, Khosta, Kudepsta, Dagomys and Lazarevskoye belong to
Big Sochi!
The history of this area goes back to the ancient times. One can call
this area «the Cradle of Mankind». People came here from the Asia Minor
400-350 thousand years ago. There are more than 150 historical places of
interest in the area. Here the camps and caves of prehistoric people
have been found.
The dolmens — massive prehistoric grave structures from the 2nd thousand
B.C. are the features of the Bronze era. The most ancient five-stone
dolmens are found in the Sochi area. Travellers of the 19th century
called dolmens «the houses of the giants» because each grave stone
weighs from 500 to 3000 kg. It is still uncertain what technical
developments made it possible to construct such structures.
The rich lands of Caucasus always attracted invaders: Greeks, Romans,
Arabs, Genuese, Turks.
In the VIth century B.C. the Black Sea coast attracted Greek colonists,
who have based a number of trade-settlements, such as Dioscuria (modern
city of Sukhumi), Pitiunt (Pitsunda), Triglif (Gagra).
Christian religion was brought over from the Byzantynne three centuries
earlier than to Russia. In the end of Xth — beginning of the XIth
centuries A.D. the first known Christian constructions were built in
Loo, Galitsino and Veseloye.
During the XVIIIth-XIXth centuries Russia conducted long wars with
Turkey for the exit to the Black Sea. In 1829, after the end of
Russian-Turkish war, by the peace treaty the Black Sea coast of
Caucasus, from the mouth of the Kuban river up to a fort St.Nicholas (to
the south of modern city Poti), has departed to Russia.
Symbol of the victory of the Russian weapon in the war of 1829 is the
monument near modern hotel «Leningrad» — «Anchor and Cannon».
The end of Russian-Turkish war has not solved all the problems of
strengthening of Russia on the Black Sea coast. The Black Sea coastal
line consisting of 17 forts was created with this purpose.
On April 21st, 1838 a small wooden fortress was established in the Sochi
river area to protect this land from local tribes. It was named
Alexandria in honour of emperess Alexandra. It was renamed one year
later, on May 18, 1839 and became Navaginskoye. But in 1854, because of
the beginning of the Crimean war, the fortress was destroyed by Russian
army. Russians left this area. Only 10 years later, on March 25th, 1864
the new fortress named Dakhovskiy was established on the place of the
Navaginskiy fortress.
In 1896 by the decision of the Tsarist government fortress Dakhovskiy
was renamed in the settlement of Sochi, after the name of the river
Sochi.
In the end of XIXth century the Black Sea coast was intensively occupied
by the immigrants from central parts of Russia, Moldova, the Ukraine,
Byelorussia, Georgia and Armenians and Greeks from Turkey. The Sochi
district becomes multinational area of Russian Empire.
In Soviet times Sochi was a quickly developing port, industrial and
resort city on the Black Sea. The fast development of the city and
construction of modern houses was due to Joseph Stalin’s sympathy to
this place. Many streets in the center of Sochi look like the center of
Moscow built in 30s and 50s.
Until now the favourite residence of Russian Presidents was Bocharov
creek (ручей). Ski resorts of Krasnaya polyana, warm blue waters of
Black Sea, luxurious tennis courts create irresistable atmosphere around
the place.
I guess, I have taken a lot of your attention already. You know yourself
what a popular resort is Sochi nowadays. Just buy the ticket and have
your suitcases packed!
Vocabulary:
to remind — напоминать
to turn into — прeвращаться (во что-либо)
blossom — цвести
chemical substances — химические вещества
iodine — йод
chlorine — хлор
bromine — бром
sulphate сульфат
carbonates — карбонаты
sodium — натрий
potassium — калий
to be stretched — быть вытянутым
events — события, мероприятия
«the Cradle of Mankind» — «колыбель человечества»
B.C. (Before Christ) — до н.э.
Asia Minor — п-ов Малая Азия
camp — лагерь
cave [keiv] — пещера
Bronze era — бронзовый век
pre-historic — доисторический
grave structures — могильники
dolmens — дольмены
features — особенности
to weigh — весить
uncertain — неопреленный
construct — возводить, строить
attract — привлекать
invader — захватчик
trade-settlements — торговые поселения, фактории
Byzantynne — Византия
A.D. — (Anno Domini) — нашей эры (н.э.)
to conduct — проводить
exit — выход
peace treaty [‘tri:ti] — мирный договор
mouth of the river — устье реки
weapon — оружие
anchor — якорь
cannon — пушка
purpose — цель
fortress — форт, укрепление
in honour of emperess Alexandra — в честь императрицы Александры
to be occupied — быть занятым, заселенным
due to — благодаря (кому-либо, чему-либо)
luxurious — роскошный
irresistible — неотразимый
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY:
village — село, деревня
cossack’s settlement — казачья станица
town — небольшой город
suburbs — пригороды
city — крупный город
center of the region — районный центр
capital of the republic — столица республики
capital of the federal district — столица федерального округа
ancient history — древняя история
medieval history — средневековая история
Dark Ages — средние века
Tsarist’s Russia — царская Россия
Great October revolution — Великая октябрьская революция
Great Patriotic War — Великая Отечественная война
WWII (World War II) — вторая мировая война
soviet times — советские времена
former USSR — бывший СССР
c) historical center — исторический центр
cultural center — культурный центр
trade center — торговый центр
transport center — транспортный центр
Exercise 4.1. Translate into English:
1. Мой родной город был основан во время царствования Николая I.
2. Первое укрепление на месте современного Сочи было названо в честь
императрицы Александры.
3. Во время Великой отечественной войны немецкие войска дважды
захватывали наш город.
4. Владимир — один из древнейших русских городов.
5. Мягкий климат и плодородные земли всегда привлекали захватчиков на
берега Кубани.
6. Великий русский изобретатель Владимир Комаров жил и работал в нашем
городе.
7. Современный Новороссийск — это крупнейший портовый город на побережье
Черного моря.
8. Наш город является одновременно крупным индустриальным и историческим
центром региона.
Exercise 4.2. Answer the following questions:
1. Do you study in your hometown or you just live here while studying?
2. Do you like the city where you study? Why and why not?
3. Do you know the history of your hometown?
4. When was your hometown founded?
5. Do you know any famous people who were born in your hometown?
6. What are the places of interest in your hometown?
7. What is your favourite place in your hometown?
Exercise 4.3. Derive the adjective (прилагательное) from the noun
(существительное):
• history — historical
• military —
• culture —
• science —
• industry —
• trade —
• agriculture —
• administration —
• politics —
Text B: «ROSTOV-ON-DON»
Rostov-on-Don, the capital of the Southern federal district and Rostov
region, is a comparatively young city. Not so long ago Rostovites
celebrated its 250th anniversary. The city was founded in 1749 when a
custom-house on the Temernik river was set up. According to a legend,
Tsar Peter the First tried the water from a spring when he stopped on
the right bank of the Don on his way to Azov. He was so pleased with the
taste of water that he called the spring «Bogaty istochnik» — Rich
spring. The name of the spring gave the name to the street. The water is
being bottled now and sold all over the country.
But only years later, after the death of Tsar Peter I, under the rule of
Katherine II a fortress was built here. The main purpose of the fortress
was to support the customs effectively operating in this trade and
transport active region. The fortress was named after Dimitry Rostovsky,
the Archbishop of Rostov the Great. The town grew later on, round the
walls of the fortress and it was also called «Rostov which lies on the
river Don».
Rostov is situated on the right bank of the river Don, not far from the
Sea of Azov. Due to its geographical position the city grew rapidly.
After the hard years of the Civil War Rostovites restored the ruined
economy of the region.
During the World War II Rostov was occupied by the Germans twice. They
destroyed almost all the city. Nowadays Rostov is the largest city in
the South of the country. It’s a big sea and river port and an important
railway junction. Rostov is called «The Gateway to the Caucasus».
The main branch of industry is agricultural machine building.
«Rostselmash» is a giant machine building plant producing a lot of
agricultural machines. Factories of Rostov produce champagne,
cigarettes, musical instruments which are well-known abroad. There is
also a big helicopter plant in Rostov.
Rostov is the cultural centre of the Rostov region. There are many
educational establishments in Rostov including the Rostov State
University founded in Warsaw in 1815. There are six theatres in Rostov
(Gorky Drama Theatre, Philharmonic, Puppet Theatre, Theatre of Musical
Comedy, Theatre of Young Spectators and Musical Theatre).
There are two museums (Local Lore Museum, Fine Arts Museum), eight
stadiums, several Palaces of Culture, a lot of cinemas, libraries, parks
and gardens.
Rostov is famous for many prominent people who lived here.
The city is very green. There are a lot of parks in the city. In summer
you can see a lot of people on the beach on the left bank of the Don
river.
General understanding:
1. What is the status of Rostov-on-Don now?
2. Is Rostov-on-Don an old city?
3. What role did Peter the Great play in the history of Rostov-on-Don?
4. Why did Peter the Great call the spring «rich».
5. When was the first fortress built? How was it called?
GRAMMAR
§1. Местоимения little и few и местоименные выражения a little и a few.
Местоимение little и местоименное выражение a little употребляются с
неисчисляемыми существительными, местоимение few и местоименное
выражение a few — с исчисляемыми:
Give me a little water, please. There is little milk in the bottle.
I have a few friends in Minsk I’ve got only few pencils in the box.
Местоимения few и little означают «мало», а местоименные выражения a few
и a little — «немного».
Much (много) употребляется с неисчисляемыми существительными, many
(много) — с исчисляемыми.
Exercise 4.4. Insert much, many, little, a little, few, a few:
1. I’d like to say… words about my travelling. 2. She gave him…
water to wash his hands and face. 3. He had… English books at home, so
he had to go to the library. 4. After the lesson everybody felt…
tired. 5. Let’s stay here… longer. I like it here. 6. There were…
new words in the text and Peter spent… time learning them. 7. There
was… sugar in the bowl, and we had to put… sugar there. 8. My mother
knows German… and she can help you with the translation of this text.
10. When we walked… farther down the road we met another group of
pupils. 11. Have you got… time before the lesson?
Exercise 4.5. Translate into English:
Много тетрадей, много молока, много воды, много дней, много газет, много
мела, много снега, много лет, много картин, много музыки, много сахара,
много чая, много лимонов, много мяса, много комнат, много учителей,
много работы, много воздуха, много птиц, много машин.
Exercise 4.6. Insert much or many:
1. Please don’t ask me… questions. 2. How… money have you got? 3.1
never eat… bread with soup. 4. Why did you eat so… ice-cream? 5. She
wrote us… letters from the country. 6…. of these students don’t like
to look up words in the dictionary. 7…. in this work was too difficult
for me. 8. He spent… time writing his composition in Literature. 9.
There were… plates on the table. 10. Thank you very… ! 11…. of my
friends are preparing for their entrance examinations now. 12. I don’t
like… sugar in my tea.
Exercise 4.7. Translate into English:
1. В стакане есть немного молока. 2. В тетради осталось мало чистых
страниц. 3. У тебя много кофе? — Нет, очень мало. 4. Немногие из
англичан говорят по-русски. 5. У них здесь очень мало друзей. 6. У него
очень мало времени для чтения. 7. У Петра много русских книг и мало
английских книг. 8. У меня есть немного времени вечером, чтобы закончить
эту работу. 9. Я провожу много времени в библиотеке, потому что я
готовлюсь к экзаменам.
§2. Оборот there is / there are.
Оборот there is / there are служит для выражения наличия (отсутствия)
какого-либо предмета в определенном месте или в определенное время.
Формы прошедшего и будущего времени: there was, there were и there will
be.
There are some pictures on the wall. На стене несколько картин.
There was nobody in the room. В комнате никого не было.
Выбор формы глагола to be зависит от числа существительного, следующего
сразу за ним:
There is a chair and two armchairs in the room.
There are two armchairs and a chair in the room. Вопросительные
предложения с оборотом there is / there are строятся следующим образом
Общий вопрос: Is there anything in the bag? Will there be lessons
tomorrow?
Специальный вопрос: What is there in the bag?
Разделительный вопрос. There are some pupils in the classroom, aren’t
there?
Exercise 4.8. Insert to be in the right form:
1.There… a telegram on the table. 2…. there any telegrams from
Moscow? Yes, there… some. 3…. there… a flight for Moscow tomorrow?
Yes, there…. 4. There… much snow last winter. 5.There… a lot of
stars and planets in space. 6…. there… a lift in your future house?
Yes, there……. 7. Some years ago there… many old houses in our
street. 8…. there any lectures yesterday? No, there… 9…. there a
lamp over the table? Yes, there…. 10…. there any interesting stories
in this book? 11…. there a test last lesson? No, there…. 12. Soon
there…… a new film on.
Exercise 4.9. Translate the following sentences and put general
questions to them:
1. There are some new pupils in our group. 2. There is no book on the
table. 3. There were many old houses in our street. 4. There are 4
seasons in a year. 5. There will be a conference next week. 6. There are
many large cities in our country. 7. There was nobody in the room. 8.
There are 7 days in a week. 9. There is something on the shelf. 10.
There are many places of interest in London. 11. There are many
beautiful flowers in our garden. 12. There was much work last week.
Exercise 4.10. Rewrite the following sentences in Past Indefinite and
Future Indefinite, translate them into Russian:
1. There is much snow in winter. 2. There are 4 theatres in our city. 3.
There is no lift in our house. 4. There are many new books in our
library. 5. There is little milk in the bottle. 6. There are 3 rooms in
our flat. 7. There is a map on the wall.
UNIT 5
RUSSIA IS MY HOMELAND
I. Гласные звуки [o:], [o], дифтонг [эu].
II. Text A: «The Russian Federation», Text B: «Moscow».
III. §1. Времена английского глагола,
§2. Правильные и неправильные глаголы.
Гласный звук [o:] — долгий гласный. Для того, чтобы правильно произнести
звук, следует придать органам речи положение, как при произнесении звука
[а:], затем значительно округлить губы и несколько выдвинуть их вперед.
Гласный звук [o]. Для того, чтобы произнести, следует исходить из
положения органов речи при произнесении звука [а:], затем слегка
округлить губы и произнести краткий звук [э].
Дифтонг [эu]. Звук представляет собой нечто среднее между русскими
звуками [о] и [э]. Губы при произнесении начала этого дифтонга слегка
растянуты и округлены. Скольжение происходит в направлении гласного [u].
Exercise A
more — score — tore
floor — for — form
fork — pork — sport
dawn — hawk — becauseExercise С
tone — note — smoke
cone — loan — moan
code — hope — cope
lobe — mould — gold
boat — soap — coatExercise В
not — top — hot
dot — mop — mob
Text A: «THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION»
The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies
about 1/6 of the Earth surface. The country is situated in Eastern
Europe, Northern and Central Asia. Its total area is over 17 million
square km.
Our land is washed by 12 seas, most of which are the seas of three
oceans: the Arctic, the Atlantic and the Pacific. In the south and in
the west the country borders on fourteen countries. It also has a
sea-border with the USA.
There is hardly a country in the world where such a great variety of
flora and fauna can be found as in our land. Our country has numerous
forests, plains and steppes, taiga and tundra, highlands and deserts.
The highest mountains in our land are the Altai, the Urals and the
Caucasus. There are over two thousand rivers in the Russian Federation.
The longest of them are the Volga, the Ob, the Yenisei, the Lena and the
Amur. Our land is also rich in various lakes with the deepest lake in
the world, the Baikal, included.
On the Russian territory there are 11 time zones. The climate conditions
are rather different: from arctic and moderate to continental and
subtropical. Our country is one of the richest in natural resources
countries in the world: oil, natural gas, coal, different ores, ferrous
and non-ferrous metals and other minerals.
The Russian Federation is a multinational state. It comprises many
national districts, several autonomous republics and regions. The
population of the country is about 140 million people.
Moscow is the capital of our Homeland. It is the largest political,
scientific, cultural and industrial center of the country and one of the
most beautiful cities on the globe. Russian is the official language of
the state. The national symbols of the Russian Federation are a
white-blue-red banner and a double-headed eagle.
The Russian Federation is a constitutional republic headed by the
President. The country government consists of three branches:
legislative, executive and judicial. The President controls only the
executive branch — the government, but not the Supreme Court and Federal
Assembly.
The legislative power belongs to the Federal Assembly comprising two
chambers: the Council of Federation (upper Chamber) and the State Duma
(lower Chamber). Each chamber is headed by the Speaker. The executive
power belongs to the government (the Cabinet of Ministers) headed by the
Prime Minister. The judicial power belongs to the system of Courts
comprising the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and federal
courts.
Our country has a multiparty system. The largest and most influential
political parties are the «Unity», the Communist party, the
«Fatherland-All Russia», «The Union of the Right Forces», «The Apple»,
Liberal-Democratic and some others.
The foreign policy of the Russian Federation is that of international
cooperation, peace and friendship with all nations irrespective of their
political and social systems.
Vocabulary:
to occupy — занимать
surface — поверхность
total area — общая площадь
to border on — граничить с
numerous — многочисленные
steppes — степи
taiga — тайга
highlands — горные возвышенности
the Urals — Уральские горы
the Caucasus — Кавказ
climate conditions — климатические условия
moderate — умеренный
ore —руда
ferrous and non-ferrous metals — черные и цветные металлы
state — государство
to comprise — включать, охватывать
banner — знамя, флаг
legislative — законодательный
executive — исполнительная
judicial — судебная
Federal Assembly — Федеральное Собрание
the Council of Federation — Совет Федерации
State Duma — Государственная Дума
Supreme Court — Верховный суд
influential — влиятельный
foreign policy — международная политика
irrespective — независимо
General understanding:
1. Is Russia the largest country in the world?
2. What oceans wash the borders of the Russian Federation?
3. How many countries have borders with Russia?
4. Are Russian flora and fauna various?
5. What are the highest mountains in Russia?
6. What is Baikal famous for?
7. What is the climate in Russia like?
8. What is the national symbol of Russia?
9. What does the Federal Assembly consist of?
10. Who is the head of each Chamber of the Federal Assembly?
Exercise 5.1. Translate into English:
1. Общая площадь Российской федерации составляет более 17 миллионов
километров.
2. В мире вряд ли есть еще одна страна с такой разнообразной флорой и
фауной.
3. Озеро Байкал — самое глубокое озеро на земном шаре и служит предметом
гордости россиян.
4. На территории Российской федерации существует 11 часовых поясов.
5. Россия является конституционной республикой с президентской формой
правления.
6. Законодательная власть принадлежит Федеральному Собранию, состоящему
из двух палат.
7. В Российском парламенте представлены такие партии, как «Единство»,
КПРФ, «Отечество—Вся Россия», «Яблоко», СПС, ЛДПР.
8. Законодательная и судебная власти прямо не подчиняются Президенту.
Exercise 5.2. How well do you know your Homeland?
What is (are):
• the biggest Russian lake?
• the longest Russian river (in European and Asian parts of the Russian
Federation)?
• a city with subtropical climate?
• cities with arctic climate?
• agricultural regions?
• old historical cities?
• places of recreation and tourism?
Text B: «MOSCOW»
Moscow is the capital and largest city of Russia. It is also the capital
of Moscow Oblast, and it stands on the Moskva River. Moscow is the
economic, political and cultural centre of Russia. Railways and numerous
airlines link the city with all parts of Russia. Navigable waterways,
including the Moscow Canal, Moskva River, and Volga-Don Canal, make the
port areas of the city directly accessible to shipping from the Baltic,
White, Black, and Caspian seas and the Sea of Azov.
Moscow covers an area of about 880 sq.km. Concentric boulevards divide
the city into several sections. At the centre of the concentric circles
(and semicircles) are the Kremlin, the former governmental seat of
Russia, and adjacent Red Square, which form the centre of a radial
street pattern. Moscow has a modern underground system famous for its
marble-walled stations.
Situated on the north bank of the Moskva River, the Kremlin is the
dominant landmark of Moscow. A stone wall, up to 21 m in height and 19
towers, surrounds this triangular complex of former palaces, cathedrals,
and other monuments of tsarist times, some of them dating from the
Middle Ages. The Great Kremlin Palace, completed in 1849, is the most
imposing structure within the Kremlin. Other notable Kremlin palaces are
the Granovitaya Palace (1491) and the Terem (1636).
Among many cathedrals, now used mainly as museums, are the Cathedral of
the Assumption (Успения) and the Archangel Cathedral, each with five
gilded domes, and the Cathedral of the Annunciation (Благовещения)
(13th-14th century), with nine gilded domes. Another landmark of the
Kremlin is the Tower of Ivan the Great, a bell tower 98 m high. On a
nearby pedestal is the Tsar’s Bell (nearly 200 tons), one of the largest
in the world. A recent addition to the Kremlin is the Palace of
Congresses, completed in 1961. In this huge modern building were held
meetings of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and congresses of the
Communist party of the Soviet Union; theatrical and other artistic
performances have been held here as well.
St Basil’s Cathedral, famous for its unique architecture and coloured
domes, stands at one end of Red Square.
One of the best-known sections of Moscow is the Kitaigorod (Chinese
City), the ancient commercial quarter lying to the east of the Kremlin.
This section is now the site of many government office buildings. Other
points of interest in Moscow include the Central Lenin Stadium,
comprising about 130 buildings for various sports and the tall Ostankino
TV tower, which contains a revolving restaurant and an observation
platform.
General understanding:
1. Where is Moscow located?
2. Is Moscow a port city?
3. How is Moscow divided into sections?
4. What is known about Moscow Underground system?
5. What are the places of interest in Moscow?
6. Why is the Kremlin the most important place of interest for tourists?
7. What Russian Orthodox cathedrals are situated inside the Kremlin?
8. What is Palace of Congresses used for at present time?
Exercise 5.3. Where are these places of interest situated?
* Granovitaya Palace
* Terem
* the Red Square
* the Kremlin
* the Great Kremlin Palace
* the Cathedral of the Assumption
* the Archangel Cathedral
* the Cathedral of the Annunciation
* the Tower of Ivan the Great
* the Tsar’s Bell
* the Palace of Congresses
* St Basil’s Cathedral
* the Central Lenin Stadium
Exercise 5.4. Please, write a short story about your visit to Moscow.
The following questions will certainly help you:
1) Have you ever been to Moscow?
2) If yes, when was it?
3) Was it a business trip or a pleasure tour?
4) Did you fly, take a bus or a train to Moscow?
5) What railway station (airport) did you arrive at?
6) What was your first impression of Moscow?
7) What places of interest have you visited?
8) Where did you stay in Moscow?
9) How long did you stayed in Moscow?
10) Did you enjoy your visit to Moscow?
GRAMMAR
§1. Времена английского глагола.
Таблица временных форм глагола
TENSE ВРЕМЯIndefinite (Simple) ПростоеContinuous ДлительноеPerfect
ЗавершенноеPresent
НастоящееI write
Я пишу (вообще, обычно)I am writing
Я пишу (сейчас)I have written
Я (уже) написалPast
ПрошедшееI wrote
Я(на)писал (вчера)I was writing
Я писал (в тот момент)I had written
Я написал (уже к тому моменту)Future
БудущееI shall/will write
Я напишу, буду писать (завтра)I shall/will be writing
Я буду писать (в тот момент)I shall/will have written
Я напишу (уже к тому моменту)
Глаголы в формах Indefinite (Simple) описывают обычные, повторяющиеся
действия как факт — безотносительно к их длительности или к результату
действия:
I go to school every day. — Я хожу в школу каждый день. В этом
высказывании интересует не время, потраченное на дорогу, не процесс
движения, не результат походов, а сам факт: я хожу в школу, а не на
работу.
То же самое относится к прошедшему времени и к будущему:
I went to school when I was a boy. — Я ходил в школу, когда был
мальчиком.
I shall go to school when I grow up. — Я буду ходить в школу, когда
вырасту.
Отрицательная и вопросительная формы в Indefinite образуются при помощи
вспомогательных глаголов do, does, did с частицей not, краткая форма:
don’t, doesn’t, didn’t. Порядок слов прямой. Вопросительные предложения
образуются, как правило, простой перестановкой подлежащего и
вспомогательного глагола. Вопросительные местоимения при этом стоят
всегда впереди.
Не is a student. — Is he a student?
We do not write much. — Do we write much?
You have a computer. — What do you have?
She does not live in Moscow. — Does she live in Moscow?
He didn’t like the film. — Did he like the film?
Особую группу составляют разъединительные вопросы, которые переводятся
как утверждения плюс «не так ли?» Они применимы к любому времени.
Например:
You speak English, don’t you? Вы говорите по-английски, не так ли?
Но: Let us speak English, shall we? Давайте говорить по-английски,
хорошо?
§2. Правильные и неправильные глаголы.
По способу образования прошедшего времени все глаголы в английском языке
можно разделить на две группы: правильные и неправильные. У правильных
глаголов вторая и третья формы (Past Indefinite Tense и Past Participle
— простое прошедшее время и причастие прошедшего времени) совпадают
между собой и образуются путем прибавления к основе глагола окончания
-ed (-d):
to ask — asked, to change — changed, to receive — received, to work—
worked
При этом существует ряд особенностей:
а) если глагол оканчивается на -у с предшествующей согласной, то буква у
меняется на i и добавляется окончание -ed
to supply — supplied, to apply — applied
если глагол оканчивается на -у с предшествующей гласной, то буква у не
меняется и добавляется окончание -ed
to stay — stayed to play — played
б) если глагол оканчивается на согласную с предшествующим кратким
гласным звуком, то согласная на конце удваивается:
to stop — stopped
После звонких согласных и гласных звуков окончание -ed или -d
произносится как [d] loved, said, а после глухих согласных как [t]
looked.
После звуков [d] и [t] на конце слова окончание -ed (-d) произносится
как [id] landed, started.
Неправильные глаголы образуют вторую и третью формы различными
способами, без четких правил. Это наиболее часто употребляемые глаголы.
Глаголы в формах Continuous описывают действие как процесс, как
длительность — в соотнесенности с определенным моментом в прошлом,
настоящем или будущем:
I am reading a book now. — Я читаю книгу (сейчас, в настоящий момент).
I was reading a book yesterday at 5 o’clock. — Я читал книгу вчера в 5
часов.
I will be reading a book tomorrow at 7 o’clock. — Я буду читать книгу
завтра в семь часов.
Помимо этой функции, глаголы в Present Continuous Tense выражают
действие, отнесенное в ближайшее будущее:
We are leaving for Moscow in July. — Мы уезжаем в Москву в июле.
Глаголы в формах Perfect выражают действие завершенное, приведшее к
определенному результату (или к отсутствию результата). Можно сказать,
что с помощью форм Perfect мы подводим итоги определенному периоду
времени, определенных действий. Время подведения итогов — либо настоящий
момент Present Perfect, либо момент в прошлом Past Perfect, либо — в
будущем Future Perfect.
I have written the letter. (Present Perfect) — Я (только что) написал
письмо (передо мной письмо как результат).
I had written the letter when he came. (Past Perfect) — Я написал
письмо, когда он пришел. (2 действия, одно завершилось раньше другого)
I will have written the letter by 10 o’clock tomorrow. (Future Perfect)
— Я напишу письмо к 10 часам завтpa. (действие завершится к
определенному моменту времени в будущем).
Exercise 5.5. Open the brackets:
1. He (know) several foreign languages.
2. I (learn) English at school.
3. Usually the train (leave) at 10 o’clock.
4. Our grandparents (live) now in Moscow.
5. He (visit) them regularly last year.
6. As a rule I (go) to my Academy by bus.
7. She (work) abroad next year.
8. She (not like) poems.
9. Your children usually (ask) many questions.
10. At present he (work) at school.
11. My brother (like) music.
12. What you (do) yesterday?
13. His sister (go) to the seaside next July.
14. Soon we (leave) the school.
15. Who (take) his book yesterday?
Exercise 5.6. Put the verb to write in the appropriate form:
1. We often… letters to our parents.
2. What… you… now?
3. Yesterday they…… tests from 10 till 12 o’clock.
4. Who…… this letter tomorrow?
5. I…… some letters last week.
6. What… you… tomorrow at 10?
7. When I came in she…… a letter.
8. Do you often… letters to your parents?
9. I… not… this article now. I…… it in some days.
10…. he… his report at the moment?
11. What… she… in the evening yesterday?
12. As a rule he… tests well.
Exercise 5.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form:
1. Peter and Ann (go) away five minutes ago. 2. I (write) the letter but
I (not send) it. 3. He just (go) away. 4. She already (answer) the
letter. 5. She (answer) it on Tuesday. 6. I just (tell) you the answer.
7. I (read) that book in my summer holidays. 8. The greengrocer (sell)
now all his vegetables. 9. He (sell) all of them half an hour ago. 10. I
(not see) him for three years. I (be) glad to see him again some time.
11. What you (do)? I (copy) the text from the text-book now. 12. He (go)
to Moscow next week? 13. He (not smoke) for a month. He is trying to
give it up. 14. When he (arrive)? — He (arrive) at 2:00. 15. You (switch
off) the light before you left the house? 16. I (read) these books when
I was at school. I (like) them very much. 17. I can’t go out because I
(not finish) my work. 18. I already (tell) you the answer yesterday. 19.
What you (do) tomorrow in the morning? 20. I (not meet) him last week.
21. I usually (leave) home at seven and (get) here at twelve. 22. Here
is your watch. I just (find) it. 23. You (not have) your breakfast yet?
Exercise 5.8. Translate into English. Pay attention to the Tense used:
1. Я никогда об этом не слышал. 2. Мальчику только четыре года, но он
уже научился читать. 3. Вы уже переехали на новую квартиру? 4. Вы
сделали много ошибок в диктанте. 5. Вы когда-нибудь видели этого
писателя? 6. В этом месяце я прочитал две новых книги. 7. Мой приятель
уехал в Киев неделю назад и еще не писал мне. 8. Я не видел своего брата
за последнее время. 9. Вы читали сегодня в газете статью о нашем новом
театре? 10. Вы были когда-нибудь в Лондоне? — Нет, я поеду туда в этом
году. 11. Вы уже прочитали эту книгу? — Как она вам понравилась? 12. Я
хотел посмотреть этот фильм на прошлой неделе, но смог посмотреть его
только вчера. 13. В этом году я собираюсь поступать в институт. 14. Ваш
сын уже окончил институт? 15. Его дочь окончила школу в прошлом году.
Exercise 5.9. Translate into English:
1. Он писал письмо, когда я пришел к нему. 2. Он делал свою работу, пока
его братья играли в футбол. 3. Я упал, когда бежал за автобусом. 4. Мы
делали уроки, когда пошел дождь. 5. Когда учитель давал урок, новая
ученица вошла в класс. 6. Когда зазвонил телефон, я работал в саду. 7. Я
увидел своих одноклассников, когда я шел по улице. 8. Начался дождь,
когда мы наблюдали за игрой.
Exercise 5.10. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form. Use Past
Tenses:
1. When I (arrive) the lecture already (start). 2. Peter (sit) in a dark
room with a book. I told him that he (read) in very bad light. 3. Mother
(make) a cake when the light (go) out. She had to finish it in the dark.
4. When I arrived Jenny (leave), so we only had time for a few words. 5.
John (have) a bath when the phone rang. He (get) out of the bath and
(go) to answer it. 6. When we (come) to the airport, the plane already
(land). 7. He suddenly (realize) that he (travel) in the wrong
direction. 8. You looked very busy when I saw you last night. What you
(do)? 9. I (call) Paul at 7.00 but it wasn’t necessary because he
already (get) up. 10. When I (see) him he (cross) the street. 11. While
he (water) the flowers it (begin) to rain. 12. Ann said that she (be) on
holiday. I (say) that I (hope) that she (enjoy) herself. 13. When I
(look) through your books I (notice) that you (have) a copy of Jack
London. 14. She said that she (not like) her present flat and (try) to
find another. 15. When Ann (finish) her homework she (turn) on TV.
Exercise 5.11. Define the Tense and translate into English:
1. Вчера в 9 часов вечера я смотрел телевизор. 2. Она сказала, что еще
не выполнила домашнее Exercise. 3. Когда пришел мой друг, я еще не
закончил завтракать. 4. Когда я встретил ее впервые, она работала в
школе. 5. Все студенты выполнили Exercise правильно после того, как
преподаватель рассказал им, как его делать. 6. Когда мы вышли на улицу,
ярко светило солнце. 7. Мой друг сказал, что его брат уже приехал. 8. Я
читал книгу, когда услышал телефонный звонок. 9. После того, как врач
осмотрел больного, он поговорил с его родственниками. 10. Когда мы
пришли на остановку, автобус уже ушел. 11. Он смотрел телевизор, когда
пришел его друг. 12. Почтальон обычно приходит в девять часов утра.
Сейчас уже половина десятого, а он все еще не пришел. 13. Каждый вечер я
смотрю телевизор. 14. Служащие заканчивают работу в шесть часов вечера.
15. Разве она не знала об этом? 16. Разве вы не видели этот фильм? 17.
Она еще не брала своего маленького сына в театр, но уже водила его в
кино в первый раз несколько дней назад. 18. Он обычно очень внимательно
слушает учителя, но сейчас он не слушает, у него болит голова. 19. Я не
играл в футбол с прошлого года. 20. Маленькая девочка часто помогает
своей матери. 21. Автор еще молодой человек. Он написал свою первую
книгу в 1989 году. 22. Сейчас 8 часов утра и ребенок уже проснулся.
Вчера утром он проснулся раньше. 23. В школе он играл в футбол.
Exercise 5.12. Put in the appropriate words from the list:
1. … I go to the Institute by bus.
2. I do my morning exercises…
3. We shall have invited you…
4. Who has seen him…?
5. He had worked here…
6. … the plant was producing new machines.
7. We have… done our work.
8. What are you doing…?
9. He was going home…
10. Will you have read the book…?
11. Did you see them…?
12. We translated this text….
1) before the Institute
2) by Tuesday
3) during October
4) every day
5) just
6) last week
7) now
8) recently
9) usually
10) when we met
11) when he comes home
12) already
Exercise 5.13. Change the sentences into questions as in the example.
Answer the questions.
Example: He can play chess. — Can’t he play chess? — Yes, he can. / No,
he can’t.
1. They left for Moscow.
2. He has finished his work.
3. She will visit us on Monday.
4. She has many relatives.
5. His father works here.
6. You know his address.
7. We shall go home together.
8. They are at home.
9. I am listening to you.
10. His friends were working in the garden.
11. You have done the task.
UNIT 6
THE UNITED KINGDOM
I. Дифтонги [iэ], [ai], согласный [h].
II. Text A: «United Kingdom», Text B: «History of London».
III. Модальные глаголы и их заменители.
Дифтонг [iэ]
Ядро звука — гласный [i], а скольжение происходит в направлении
нейтрального гласного, имеющего оттенок звука [/].
Дифтонг [ai]
Ядро дифтонга — гласный звук, похожий на русский звук [а] в слове чай.
Скольжение происходит в направлении звука [i], однако его образование
полностью не достигается, в результате чего слышится лишь начало звука
[i].
Согласный звук [h].
Этого звука в русском языке нет. В английском языке он встречается
только перед гласным и на слух представляет собой легкий, едва слышный
выдох. В отличие от русского [х] английский [h] образуется без всякого
участия языка, поэтому необходимо следить за тем, чтобы задняя спинка
языка не поднималась близко к мягкому нёбу.
Exercise A
year — hear — ear
here — near — fear
tear — peer — beer
rear — leer — mere
Exercise В
mile — pile — kite
site — side — ride
height — light — fight
might — right — tight
pike — hike — hide
Exercise С
hope — heap — hat
heal — heel — heal
health — height — hear
hood — his — ham
her — here — hate
Exercise D
hit — heat — head
hall — hollow — hammer
hand — happy — hard
harm — hair — hazard
Text A «THE UNITED KINGDOM»
The United Kingdom, officially the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland, is an island nation and constitutional monarchy in
north-western Europe, member of the European Union (EU).
Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles. It comprises,
together with numerous smaller islands, England and Scotland, and the
principality of Wales. Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, occupies
the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland.
The United Kingdom is bordered to the south by the English Channel,
which separates it from continental Europe, to the east by the North
Sea, and to the west by the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The only
land border is between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The
total area of the United Kingdom is 242 sq.km. The capital and largest
city is London.
The names «United Kingdom», «Great Britain», and «England» are often
used interchangeably. The use of «Great Britain», often shortened to
«Britain», to describe the whole kingdom is common and widely accepted,
although strictly it does not include Northern Ireland.
However, the use of «England» to mean the «United Kingdom» is not
acceptable to members of the other constituent countries, especially the
Scots and the Welsh.
England and Wales were united administratively, politically, and legally
by 1543. The crowns of England and Scotland were united in 1603, but the
two countries remained separate political entities until the 1707 Act of
Union, which formed the Kingdom of Great Britain with a single
legislature. From 1801, when Great Britain and Ireland were united,
until the formal establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the
kingdom was officially named the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland.
Hong Kong, which has 200,000 population, was returned to China in 1997.
The mainland of the island of Great Britain is 974 km at its longest and
531 km at its widest; however, the highly indented nature of the
island’s coastline means that nowhere is more than about 120 km from the
sea.
The climate of the United Kingdom is mild relative to its latitude,
which is the same as that of Labrador in Canada. The mildness is an
effect of the warm Gulf Stream. This current brings the prevailing
south-west winds that moderate winter temperatures and bring the
depressions which have the main day-to-day influence on the weather. The
western side of the United Kingdom tends to be warmer than the eastern;
the south is warmer than the north. The mean annual temperature is 6°C
in the far north of Scotland; 11С in the south-west of England. Winter
temperatures seldom are below -10°C and summer temperatures rarely
higher than 32°C. The sea winds also bring plenty of moisture; average
annual precipitation is more than 1,000 mm.
Rain tends to fall throughout the year, frequently turning to snow in
the winter, especially in Scotland, the mountains of Wales, and northern
England. The western side of Britain is much wetter than the eastern:
average rainfall varies is from 5,000 mm in the western Highlands of
Scotland, to less than 500 mm in parts of East Anglia in England.
The population of United Kingdom is more than 56 mln people, but it is
one of the world’s leading commercial and industrialized nations. In
terms of gross national product (GNP) it ranks fifth in the world, with
Italy, after the United States, Japan, Germany, and France.
Vocabulary:
island nation — островное государство
constitutional monarchy — конституционная монархия
European Union — Европейский союз
to comprise — включать
numerous — многочисленные
principality — княжество
North Sea — Северное море
interchangeably — взаимозаменяемо
to accept — принимать, допускать
strictly — строго, зд. строго говоря
include — включать
constituent — составляющий
administratively — административно
entities — зд. субъекты
single — зд. единая
indented — зд. изрезанная
latitude — широта геогр.
prevailing — преобладающий
moderate — умеренный
depressions — зд. циклоны
mean — средний
throughout — на всем протяжении
average annual precipitation — среднегодовое количество осадков
in terms of — говоря (о чем-либо)
GNP (Gross National Product) — валовой национальный продукт.
Exercise 6.1. Translate into English.
1. Официальное название Великобритании — Соединенное Королевство
Великобритании и Северной Ирландии.
2. Соединенное королевство является членом Европейского союза и
конституционной монархией.
3. Северная Ирландия занимает северо-восточную часть острова Ирландия.
4. Пролив Ла-Манш отделяет Соединенное Королевство от континентальной
Европы.
Exercise 6.2. Use the following phrases and word combinations to retell
the text:
1. As I understood from the text…
2. According to the text…
3. According to the author…
4. As it is described in the text…
5. As it is said in the text…
6. As the author puts it…
7. According to the figures (data, information, opinions) from the
text…
Exercise 6.3. Discuss the following statements. Use the following
phrases to express your opinion:
1. It seems to me (that)…
2. I would like to say that…
3. As I see it…
4. I think that…
5. I guess…
6. I suppose…
7. I (strongly) believe that…
8. I am (absolutely) sure that…
Statement A: The United Kingdom is a small country. It is one of the
leading countries now because it had many rich colonies in the past.
Statement B: UK will loose Northern Ireland soon and Wales and Scotland
later, like it lost Hong Kong in 1997, because of the differences in
languages, culture and history.
Statement C: British people don’t travel much because they live not too
far from the sea (ocean).
Exercise 6.4. Which events in the modern history of Great Britain had an
impact on world science and technology. Choose five the most important
and briefly describe them.
Exercise 6.5. What inventions in UK made life more convenient and safer?
What inventions have become dangerous for the mankind?
Exercise 6.6. Use the information below to be able to make a report on
the following:
1) Land, 2) Climate, 3) Population, 4) Ethnic groups, 5) Economy.
Table: Modern history of Great Britain1914World War I begins.1918World
War I ends.1919First regular London-Paris air service
instituted.1926John Logie Baird demonstrates television
system.1927British Broadcasting Corporation chartered. 1928Alexander
Fleming discovers penicillin.1936First regular television broadcasts
from Alexandra Palace.1947Independence for India and Pakistan.
Nationalization of coal mines and railways.1949Foundation of North
Atlantic Treaty Organization.1952Britain explodes atomic bomb in
Australia.1955Irish Republican Army begins terrorist
campaign.1960Independence for Cyprus and Nigeria. «The Beatles»
form.1969Oil discovered off Scottish coast.1980North Sea oil makes
Britain self-sufficient in certain petroleum products.1986Trident
ballistic missile system ordered from US.
LAND
Area
241,752 sq km
Highest Point
Ben Nevis
1,343 m above sea level
Lowest Point
Holme Fen 3 m below sea level CLIMATE
Average Temperatures
London
January 4C
July 18C
Edinburgh
January 3C
July 15C
Average Annual Precipitation
London 590 mm
Edinburgh 680 mmPOPULATION
Population
58,395,000 (1994 estimate)
Population Density
242 persons/sq km (1994 estimate)
Urban/Rural population
92% Urban
8% Rural
Largest Cities
London (Greater) 6,933,000
Birmingham 1,017,000
Leeds 724,500
Glasgow 681,000
Ethnic Groups
94,5% English, Scottish, Welsh, or Irish
5,5% Other
Languages
Official Language
English
Other Languages
Welsh, Scots-Gaelic, other minority languages
Religions
54% Anglicanism
13% Roman Catholicism
33% Other
including other Protestant denominations, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and
Sikhism
ECONOMY
Gross Domestic Product
US$1,023,900,000,000 (1994)
Chief Economic Products
Agriculture
Wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, oilseed rape, livestock, animal
products.
Fishing
Mackerel, herring, cod, plaice
Mining
Coal, limestone, petroleum and natural gas.
Manufacturing
Machinery and transport equipment, food products, chemical products,
minerals and metal products.
Employment Statistics
58% Trade and Services
23% Manufacturing and Industry
16% Business and Finance
2% Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
1 % Military and Defense
Major Exports
Industrial and electrical machinery, automatic data processing
equipment, road vehicles, petroleum.
Major Imports
Road vehicles, industrial and electrical machinery, automatic data
processing equipment, petroleum, paper and paperboard, textiles, food.
Major Trading Partners
Germany, the United States, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Japan
Text B: “HISTORY OF LONDON”
The Romans were the first to settle and occupy the Celtic fortress of
Londinium. Construction of a bridge in 100 A.D. made London an important
junction: it soon became a busy commercial and administrative
settlement, and in the 2nd century A.D. a wall was built round the city.
The Roman Empire fell in the 5th century. London have maintained its
trading activity. In the 9th century Danish invaders destroyed much of
the city. They were followed by the Saxons led by King Alfred the Great,
who entered the city in 886. The Danes remained a powerful force in
England, however, and it was not until the reign of Edward the
Confessor, which began in 1042, that civic stability was re-established,
to be cemented by the Norman Conquest in 1066.
William the Conqueror centred his power at the Tower of London, and his
White Tower is still the heart of this impressive monument.
The City soon united its economic power with political independence.
Late in the 12th century it elected its own Lord Mayor. From 1351 it
elected its own council, and by the end of the 14th century the reigning
sovereign could not enter the City without permission.
In the reign of Elizabeth I had the arts a renaissance with such great
dramatists as Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson.
In 1665, London had been devastated first by the Great Plague, and then
by the Fire of London, which destroyed most of the city the following
year. During the reconstruction of the city, following the original
street pattern, the architect Sir Christopher Wren was given
responsibility for the design of a number of State-funded buildings,
including St. Paul’s Cathedral.
The western part of London was developed under the Hanoverian Kings:
great squares were laid out such as those of Grosvenor, Cavendish,
Berkeley, and Hanover, and more bridges were built across the river.
Public services were improved, such as the water supply and sewerage
systems, and the streets were paved.
In the 19th century London’s population began to rise still more
rapidly: it increased sixfold over the century as a whole, thanks to
influx from all over the British Isles, from Britain’s colonies, and
from continental Europe. The Industrial Revolution was creating huge
numbers of jobs, but never enough to satisfy the hopes of all the poor
people who came to the capital. The novels of Charles Dickens tell us
about the social problems of that period.
The First World War had little effect on London, but the Depression that
followed in the late 1920s and early 1930s hit the whole country,
including the capital. There were hunger marches and riots. London was
to pay far more dearly during World War II. The intensive bombing of
London (The Blitz) in 1940-1941 took the lives of 10,000 people and left
17,000 injured. Countless historic buildings were damaged, including the
Houses of Parliament.
After the war London was to re-emerge as a radically different city. The
docks had been so severely damaged that reconstruction, a very expensive
process, was not reasonable. By the end of the 1950s most of the war
damage had been repaired. New skyscrapers were built, outdoing each
other in height and spectacular design. The 30-storey Post Office Tower
was built in 1965. It is 189 m high. Other significant post-war
developments include the 183 m National Westminster Bank Building
(1979); and Britain’s highest building, the 244 m Canary Wharf Tower on
the Docklands site, near to a new City airport.
General understanding:
1) What was the original name of London? Why was it so important for
Romans?
2) Who was King Alfred the Great? When did he enter the city?
3) What is still the reminder of William the Conqueror?
4) How was Britain governed in 12th-14th centuries?
5) How did plague influence the history of London?
6) Who was in charge of the reconstruction of the city? Why did it need
reconstruction?
7) Why did the population of London grow in the 19th century?
8) How did the First World War affect the history of London? What about
the WWII?
9) How did London change after the WWII?
10) What are the names of skyscraper buildings in London?
GRAMMAR
Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты.
Модальные глаголы показывают отношение говорящего к действию,
выраженному инфинитивом. Например, сравните:
You can speak English. Вы можете (умеете) говорить по-английски.
You must speak English. Вы должны говорить по-английски.
You may speak English. Вы можете говорить по-английски. (Вас поймут.)
Как видим, в одном и том же предложении изменение модального глагола
меняет смысл всего предложения, т. е. меняется отношение к действию,
выраженному инфинитивом.
Модальные глаголы не имеют форм во всех временах, для этого
употребляются их эквиваленты (заменители).
Вопросительные и отрицательные предложения с модальными глаголами
строятся без вспомогательных глаголов: Can you help me? — Yes, I can. —
No, I can’t. Вы можете помочь мне? — Да. — Нет.
К основным модальным относятся глаголы:
can — мочь, быть в состоянии, could — прошедшее время
предполагает наличие физической, умственной и прочих возможностей,
позволяющих сделать что-либо:
I can swim. — Я могу (я умею) плавать.
I could translate this text.- (Я мог, был в состоянии) перевести этот
текст.
В будущем времени у глагола can есть заменитель — конструкция to be able
to (быть в состоянии что-либо сделать): I shall be able to help you when
I am free. — Я смогу помочь тебе, когда освобожусь.
may — иметь возможность, получить разрешение (делать что-либо),
might — прошедшее время
May I help you? — Можно вам помочь? — Yes, you may. — Да, можно.
В будущем времени у модального глагола may есть заменитель — конструкция
to be allowed to (получить разрешение сделать что-либо).
Не will be allowed to take the book. Ему разрешат взять книгу.
must — должен, обязан.
You must write it down now. — Вы должны написать это сейчас.
Заменителями глагола must являются глаголы to have to и to be to,
которые имеют некоторые дополнительные оттенками значения. Глагол to
have to означает долженствование, вызванное обстоятельствами,
вынужденную необходимость, в то время как глагол to be to —
долженствование, связанное с расписанием, планом или заранее сделанной
договоренностью.
She had to stay at home. — Она вынуждена была (ей пришлось) остаться
дома.
The train was to arrive at 8 in the evening. — Поезд должен был прибыть
в 8 вечера. (По расписанию).
После модальных глаголов и некоторых их эквивалентов инфинитив
употребляется без частицы to.
Заменителями модального глагола must являются также модальные глаголы
ought to, should (в значении совета, рекомендации, упрека) и shall
(испрашивается разрешение на совершение действия).
You should enter the Institute. Вам следует поступить в институт
(рекомендация, совет),
В сочетании с перфектным инфинитивом глагол should выражает сожаление о
невыполненном действии и переводится «следовало бы».
You should have helped them. Вам следовало бы помочь им. (Но вы не
сделали этого).
Shall I read? Мне следует читать?
Модальный глагол would может иметь следующие
значения:
1) Вежливая просьба. Would you help me? He поможете ли вы мне?
2) Повторяемость действия в прошлом. Не would often help me. Он, бывало,
часто помогал мне.
3) Стойкое нежелание совершать какие-либо действия. Не wouldn’t listen
to me. Он никак не хотел слушать меня. –
Модальный глагол need – «нужно, надо» употребляется, в основном, в
отрицательных предложениях. You needn’t do it now. Вам не нужно делать
это сейчас.
Exercise 6.7. Analyse the use of modal verbs and translate the following
sentences:
1. Who can answer my question?
2. Nobody could translate this text.
3. He ought to do this task at once.
4. Must I attend this meeting? — No, you needn’t.
5. You should have shown your notes to the teacher.
6. I asked him, but he wouldn’t listen to me.
7. They should visit her, she is in the hospital.
8. Last summer we would often go to the country.
9. Your son can do this work himself.
10. Would you tell me the way to the station?
11. Your friend might have informed us.
12. May I leave for a while? — Yes, you may.
13. She should be more attentive at the lessons.
14. You needn’t come so early.
Exercise 6.8. Insert necessary modal verbs:
1. I… not go to the theatre with them last night, I… revise the
grammar rules and the words for the test. 2. My friend lives a long way
from his office and… get up early. 3. All of us… be in time for
classes. 4. When my friend has his English, he… stay at the office
after work. He (not)… stay at the office on Tuesday, Thursday and
Saturday and… get home early. 5…. you… work hard to do well in
your English? 6. «… we discuss this question now?» «No, we… We… do
it tomorrow afternoon.» 7. I’m glad you… come. 8. «… you… come and
have dinner with us tomorrow? » «I’d love to. » 9. «Please send them
this article.» «Oh,… I do it now?»
Exercise 6.9. Translate into English using modal verbs:
1. Мы обязательно должны писать диктант сегодня? — Да, завтра мы будем
учить новые слова. 2. Вчера мне пришлось ответить на все эти письма. 3.
Виктора тоже пригласить на обед? — Да, сделайте это, пожалуйста. 4. Вам
пришлось остаться дома, потому что была плохая погода? 5. Вы обязательно
должны прийти и посмотреть нашу новую квартиру.— С удовольствием. 6. Я
рад, что мне не пришлось заканчивать эту работу вчера. 7. Я не люблю
поздно ложиться спать, но иногда мне приходится. 8. Можно мне пойти
погулять сейчас? — Нет, нельзя. Ты должен скоро ложиться спать. 9. Вам
следует навестить вашего друга. Он вчера не пришел на урок. 10. Почему
ты не пришла? — Я не могла, я должна была помочь маме по дому. 11. Вам
не нужно идти в библиотеку, у нас много книг дома, и вы можете взять
любую, какую хотите.
UNIT 7
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
I. Согласные звуки [], [].
II. Text A: «The USA»,
Text В: «Transport Sustem of the USA».
III.§1. Согласование времен в главном и придаточном предложениях.
§2. Страдательный залог
Согласный звук []
В русском языке подобного звука нет. Звук [] – глухой. При его
произнесении язык распластан и не напряжен, кончик языка образует узкую
плоскую щель, неплотно прижимаясь к нему. В эту щель с силой проходит
струя воздуха. Кончик языка не должен сильно выступать за верхние зубы
или слишком плотно прижиматься к губам. Зубы должны быть обнажены,
особенно нижние, так, чтобы нижняя губа не касалась верхних зубов и не
приближалась к ним.
Согласный звук []
При произнесении звука [] органы речи занимают такое же положение, как и
при произнесении звука []. Звук [] отличается от звука [] только
звонкостью.
Exercise A
through — fifth — myth
thief — booth — tooth
thank — think — thought
theatre — theory — theftthreat — three — thunder
threw — throat — thumb
faith — heart — path
bath — booth — broth
Exercise С Exercise В
thermometer — thick — thin
thirst — thirty — thoroughthis — that — these — those
there — though
them — they — theText A: «THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA»
The United States of America is the 4th largest country in the world
after Russia, Canada and China. It occupies the central part of the
North American continent.
The United States of America is a federal republic, consisting of 50
states including the states of Alaska and Hawaii. Outlying areas include
Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, and the US Virgin Islands.
The northern boundary is partly formed by the Great Lakes and the St
Lawrence River; the southern boundary is partly formed by the Rio
Grande. United States also has a sea-border with Russia.
The total area of the United States (including the District of Columbia)
is about 9,809,000 sq km.
The country is washed by 3 oceans: the Arctic, the Atlantic and the
Pacific. The country has many lakes, with the Great Lakes included.
There are also many rivers on the US territory. The longest of them are
the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Columbia, the Rio Grande and some
others. On the US territory there are mountains and lowlands. The
highest mountains are the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and the Sierra
Nevada. The highest peak, Mount McKinley, is located in Alaska.
The climate conditions are rather different. The country is rich in
natural and mineral resources: oil, gas, iron ore, coal and various
metals.
The USA is a highly developed industrial and agricultural country. The
main industrial branches are aircraft, rocket, automobile, electronics,
radio-engineering and others.
Americans are made up from nearly all races and nations. The country
population is over 250 min. The national symbol of the USA is its
national flag «Stars and Stripes», having 50 white stars and 13 white
and red stripes on its field, symbolising the number of the original and
present day states.
Officially the country comprises 50 states and one District of Columbia.
The states differ in size, population and economic development. Each
state has its own capital. The capital of the USA is Washington. It is
situated in the District of Columbia on the banks of the Potomac river
and is named after the 1st US President – George Washington. There are
many large cities in the country: New York, Los Angeles, Chicago,
Philadelphia, Detroit, San-Francisco, Cleveland and some others.
The United States of America is a federal state, headed by the
President. According to the US Constitution the powers of the Government
are divided into 3 branches: legislative, executive and judicial.
The legislative power belongs to the Congress consisting of the Senate
and the House of Representatives. The Senate represents the states while
the House of Representatives — the population. The executive power
belongs to the President and his Administration (Vice-President and
Cabinet of Ministers). The judicial power belongs to the Supreme Court
and the system of Federal, state and district courts.
There are several political parties in the USA, the largest of them are
the Republican (symbolised by a donkey) and the Democratic (symbolised
by an elephant).
Vocabulary:
outlying areas — внешние территории
District of Columbia — округ Колумбия
to pass — проходить через
frontier — граница
to include — включать
lowlands — низины
peak — вершина, пик
to be located — располагаться
aircraft — воздушное судно
to be made up from — быть составленным, состоять из
stripe — полоса
to symbolize — символизировать
legislative power — законодательная власть
to represent — представлять
to belong — принадлежать
donkey — осел
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY:
a) Great Plains — Великие равнины
Appalachian mountains — Аппалачские горы
Rocky mountains — Скалистые горы
b) driveway — проезд, выезд
sidewalk — тротуар
drive-thru shop — магазин, покупки в котором производятся через окно
автомобиля
toll-road — платная дорога (магистраль)
toll-free road — бесплатная дорога
highway, parkway, thruway — автомагистрали
turnpike — главная магистраль
shopping-mall — торговый центр
shopping plaza — открытая торговая площадь, торговый ряд
free delivery — бесплатная доставка
telephone order — телефонный заказ
sale — распродажа
discount — скидка
seasons sale — сезонная распродажа
clearance sale — распродажа залежей товаров
discount coupon — купон на скидку
free gift — бесплатный подарок
Exercise 7.1. Translate into English:
1. США — четвертая по размеру страна после России, Канады и Китая.
2. Внешние границы включают в себя Пуэрто Рико, Американское Самоа и
Виргинские острова.
3.48 Штатов граничат на севере с Канадой, а на юге с Мексикой.
4. США имеет морскую границу с Российской Федерацией.
6. США омывается тремя океанами: Северным Ледовитым, Атлантическим и
Тихим.
7. США — высокоразвитое промышленное государство со множеством отраслей.
8. Аэрокосмическая и электронные отрасли промышленности США занимают
особое место в экономике США.
9. Каждый штат имеет свою столицу.
Text В: «TRANSPORT SYSTEM OF THE USA»
The development of transport facilities was very important in the growth
of the United States. The first travel routes were natural waterways. No
surfaced roads existed until the 1790s, when the first turnpikes were
built. Besides the overland roads, many canals were constructed between
the late 18th century and 1850 to link navigable rivers and lakes in the
eastern United States and in the Great Lakes region. Steam railways
began to appear in the East in the 1820s. The first transcontinental
railway was constructed between 1862 and 1869 by the Union Pacific and
Central Pacific companies, both of which received large subsidies from
the federal government. Transcontinental railways were the chief means
of transport used by European settlers who populated the West in the
latter part of the 19th century. The railways continued to expand until
1917, when their length reached a peak of about 407,000 km. Since then
motor transport became a serious competitor to the railway both for
passengers and freight.
Air transport began to compete with other modes of transport after World
War I. Passenger service began to gain importance in 1920s, but not
until the beginning of commercial jet craft after World War II did air
transport become a leading mode of travel.
During the early 1990s railways annually handled about 37,5 per cent of
the total freight traffic; trucks carried 26 per cent of the freight,
and oil pipelines conveyed 20 per cent. Approximately 16 per cent was
shipped on inland waterways. Although the freight handled by airlines
amounted to only 0,4 per cent of the total, much of the cargo consisted
of high-priority or high-value items.
Private cars carry about 81 per cent of passengers. Airlines are the
second leading mover of people, carrying more than 17 per cent of
passengers. Buses are responsible for 1,1 per cent, and railways carry
0,6 per cent of passengers.
Roads and Railways
The transport network spreads into all sections of the country, but the
web of railways and highways is much more dense in the eastern half of
the United States.
In the early 1990s the United States had about 6,24 million km of
streets, roads, and highways. The National Interstate Highway System,
68,449 km in length in the early 1990s, connected the nation’s principal
cities and carried about one-fifth of all the road and street traffic.
More than 188 million motor vehicles were registered in the early 1990s.
More than three-quarters were cars — one for every two persons in the
country. About one-fifth of the vehicles were lorries. Amtrak (the
National Railroad Passenger Corporation), a federally subsidized
concern, operates almost all the inter-city passenger trains in the
United States; it carried more than 22 million passengers annually in
the early 1990s.
General understanding:
1. What were the first routes in the US?
2. When was the first transcontinental railway constructed?
3. What was the length of railroads in 1917?
4. When did air transport start to gain importance?
5. How many motor vehicles were registered in US in early 90s?
6. What is Amtrak? How many passengers did it carry annually in the
early 90s?
GRAMMAR
§1. Согласование времен в главном и придаточном предложениях
В английском сложноподчиненном предложении с придаточным дополнительным
(вопрос «что?», «кто?», «чего?» и т. д.) соблюдаются правила
согласования времен в главном и придаточном предложениях. Эти правила
сводятся к следующему:
1. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в настоящем или
будущем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного дополнительного
предложения может стоять в любой временной форме, требуемой смыслом,
например:
Не says you are right. — Он говорит, что ты прав.
Не will tell why he was not at school yesterday. — Он скажет, почему он
не был в школе вчера.
2. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в прошедшем времени
(обычно — в Past Indefinite), то и глагол дополнительного придаточного
предложения должен стоять в одном из прошедших времен, в том числе — в
будущем с точки зрения прошедшего (Future in the Past).
He said he would not go to school tomorrow. — Он сказал, что не пойдет в
школу завтра.
При этом для обозначения действия, одновременного с действием,
выраженным сказуемым главного предложения, употребляется Past Continuous
(в русском языке — настоящее время) или Past Indefinite.
Не told me he was preparing for his exam. — Он сказал мне, что готовится
к экзамену.
Для обозначения действия, предшествующего действию, выраженному
сказуемым главного предложения, обычно употребляется Past Perfect. На
русский язык глагол-сказуемое придаточного в данном случае переводится
глаголом в прошедшем времени:
I didn’t know he had left for Moscow. — Я не знал, что он уехал в
Москву.
При указании определенного времени (in 1980, yesterday) предшествующее
время выражается при помощи Past Indefinite. Например: I thought you
were born in 1980.
Для выражения будущего времени с точки зрения прошедшего времени
употребляется форма Future in the Past где вспомогательный глагол will
меняется на would, которая на русский язык переводится будущим временем:
Не told me that he would meet me at the Institute. — Он сказал мне, что
встретит меня в институте.
Exercise 7.2. Open the brackets. Pay attention to the Sequence of
Tenses. Translate the sentences into English.
1. I did not know that you already (to read) this book 2. He did it
better than I (to expect). 3. He said that the bus (to be) here soon.
4.1 think it all happened soon after the meeting (to end). 5. They
decided that they (to bring) us all the necessary books. 6. He said that
he (can) not do it without my help. 7. He asked the students whether
they ever (to see) such a book. 8. It was decided that we (to start) our
work at eight o’clock. 9. I told you that I (to leave) for Minsk on the
following day. 10. The boy did not know that he already (receive) a good
mark. 12. He wanted to know what (to become) of the books. 13. The
visitors were told that the secretary just (to go out) and (to come
back) in half an hour. 14. He said we (may) keep the books as long as we
(to like). 15. We thought that he not (to be able) to make his work in
time and therefore (to offer) to help her. 16. When I came they (to
tell) me that he (to leave) half an hour before. 17. It was soon clear
to the teacher that the control work (to be) a difficult one. 18. I
decided that next year I (to go) to see my old friend again. I not (to
see) him since he (to go) to Moscow.
§2. Страдательный залог (Passive Voice).
Формы страдательного залога английских глаголов образуются с помощью
вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени, лице и числе и
причастия II (Participle II) смыслового глагола:
Present IndefiniteThe letter is writtenPast IndefiniteThe letter was
writtenFuture IndefiniteThe letter will be writtenPresent ContinuousThe
letter is being writtenPast ContinuousThe letter was being writtenFuture
ContinuousThe letter will be being writtenPresent PerfectThe letter has
been writtenPast PerfectThe letter had been writtenFuture PerfectThe
letter will have been written
Глагол-сказуемое в страдательном залоге показывает, что подлежащее
предложения является объектом действия со стороны другого лица или
предмета.
Сравните: I bought a book. — Я купил книгу.
The book was bought (by me). — Книга была куплена (мной).
Глаголы в страдательном залоге на русский язык переводятся
1. глаголом быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога:
The letter was sent yesterday. Письмо было послано вчера.
2. глаголом с частицей -ся (-сь):
This problem was discussed last week. Эта проблема обсуждалась на
прошлой неделе.
3. неопределенно-личным оборотом, т. е. глаголом в действительном залоге
3 лица множественного числа, типа «говорят», «сказали»:
English is spoken in many countries. На английском языке говорят во
многих странах.
4. глаголом в действительном залоге (при наличии исполнителя действия):
Pupils are taught at school by the teachers. Учеников учат в школе
учителя.
Exercise 7.3. Translate into English. Determine the Tense and Voice of
the verb:
1. He left for Moscow. 2. The news will be of great interest. 3. They
were speaking to him. 4. She studied many subjects. 5. He was much
spoken about. 6. New subjects will be studied next term. 7. I am working
now. 8. The text has already been written by them. 9. He studies at our
school. 10. You are playing chess, aren’t you? 11. The text is being
translated at the moment. 12. Do you work at this lab? 13. When I saw
him, he was going home. 14. They will have passed their exams by 3
o’clock. 15. This book was written by our teacher. 16. We shall be
writing our tests at 10 o’clock. 17. The work will have been done when
he comes. 18. We translated this text. 19. The letter had been written
before we came. 20. We shall inform you. 21. These toys are made in
Japan. 22. Does he work here? 23. Is he working now? 24. The conference
will be held in May. 25. Rostov was named after Dmitry Rostovsky.
26.What are you doing here? 27. This work must be done at once. 28. You
may take my book. 29. I am often asked at the lessons. 30. This article
was being translated when I came.
Exercise 7.4. Translate into English. Determine the Tense and Voice of
the verb:
l.They can be seen in our library every day. 2. The delegation is headed
by the Prime Minister. 3. The child was often left home alone. 4. These
houses were built last year. 5. All letters had been written when we
came. 6. This film is much spoken about. 7. The machine is being tested
now. 8. His work has been already finished. 9.1 was told to wait for
him. 10.Your letter will have been answered by Monday. 11. The
experiment was being carried out from ten till twelve o’clock.
12.Children under sixteen will not be admitted here.
Exercise 7.5. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form:
1. I’m not reading these books today. They (return) to the library. 2.
The paintings (exhibit) till the end of the month. 3. Why your home task
(not do)? 4. She was taken to the hospital today, and (operate) tomorrow
morning. 5. This room (use) only on special occasions. 6. Bicycles must
not (leave) here. 7. This newspaper (not read). The pages (not cut). 8.
Dictionaries may not (use) at the examination. 9. Usually this street
(sweep) every day, but it (not sweep) yesterday. 10. This book (leave)
in the classroom yesterday; it (find) by the teacher. 11. Thousands of
new houses (build) every year. 12. This room (not use) for a long time.
13. The children are very excited this morning. They (take) to the
circus this afternoon.
Exercise 7.6. Translate into English:
1. Эта книга была прочитана всеми. 2. Письмо будет отправлено завтра. 3.
Ее часто спрашивают? 4. На ваш вопрос ответят завтра. 5. Текст
переводился вчера с двух до трех. 6. Работа только что завершена нами.
7. Эти книги уже будут опубликованы к концу года. 8. Наша контрольная
работа сейчас проверяется? 9. О новой книге будут много говорить. 10. В
нашем городе сейчас строится много новых зданий. 11. Ключи были утеряны
вчера. 12. Мальчика возьмут в кино. 13. Вам сказали об этом? 14.
Телеграмма уже получена?
Exercise 7.7. Translate into English:
1. Он сказал мне, что текст будет переведен к 10 часам завтра. 2. Все
картины, которые вы здесь видите, написаны одним и тем же художником. 3.
Письмо будет отправлено завтра. 4. Работа будет закончена в срок. 5. За
доктором послали? Сделайте это как можно скорее. У ребенка высокая
температура. 6. Эта книга была написана до того, как автор стал
знаменитым. 7. Сотни новых домов будут построены к концу этого года. 8.
Эта история давно забыта всеми. 9. Мне предложили очень интересную
работу. 10. Он серьезный человек. На него всегда можно положиться. 11.
За старой женщиной ухаживает ее младшая дочь. 12. На вечере нам показали
прекрасный фильм. 13. Его ударили мячом. 14. С ним необходимо немедленно
поговорить по этому вопросу. 15. Вам зададут несколько вопросов на
экзамене. 16. Ей был дан список участников собрания. 17. Речь была
заслушана с большим вниманием. 18. Вам объяснят, как добраться до
железнодорожного вокзала. 19. Об этой пьесе сейчас много говорят. 20.
Делегацию нужно встретить завтра в 9 часов утра в аэропорту.
UNIT 8
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UK
I. Согласные звуки [w], [].
II. Text A: «Higher Education In the UK».
III.§1. Сложное дополнение (Complex object).
§2. Причастие и герундий.
Согласный звук [w]. При произнесении губы округлены и значительно
выдвинуты вперед, а задняя часть языка занимает примерно такое же
положение, как при произнесении русского [у]. Струя выдыхаемого воздуха
с силой проходит через образованную между губами круглую щель. Губы
энергично раздвигаются.
Согласный звук []. При произнесении согласного задняя спина языка
смыкается с опущенным мягким нёбом, и воздух проходит через носовую
полость.
Exercise A
what — why — where
whip — wheat — whileExercise С
wall — wallet — walk
walnut — waltz — wonExercise В
war — wharf — water
wedding — wage — wait
waitress — waist — waste
weather — woman — windExercise D
wing — king — sting
sing — nothing — something
everything — anything — ring
Text A: “HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UK»
Education after 16 is voluntary in United Kingdom. Students, who live in
England, Wales, and Northern Ireland must take at the age of 16 the
examinations for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE).
In Scotland students receive the Scottish Certificate of Education.
After this exam students can choose to stay on in school or attend
colleges of further education.
British universities are self-governing and are guaranteed academic
independence. Funding for education and research is provided by funding
councils set up by Parliament. The number of universities jumped in 1992
when polytechnics and some other higher education establishments were
given the right to become universities. By the end of 1994, there were
some 90 universities, almost half of them former polytechnics, including
the Open University.
Many of the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge universities were founded
in the 12th and 13th centuries. All other universities in Britain were
founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. The Open University, based in
Milton Keynes, England, was founded in 1969. It uses extension
techniques of correspondence courses, television and radio programmes,
and video cassettes, supported by local study centres and summer
schools, to provide higher education opportunities to a wide variety of
people.
During the 1960s there was a significant increase in the number of new
universities, reflecting a fast growth in student numbers. During the
1980s, an expansion in higher education places led to another large jump
in student numbers. In the 1992-1993 academic year there were more than
1,4 million students in full or part-time higher education in Great
Britain, compared with just under 850,000 a decade earlier. About one
quarter of young people are in higher education in England, Wales, and
Scotland; one third in Northern Ireland. About 90 per cent of students
get state grants to cover tuition fees and living costs.
The size of the grant is determined by parents income. Since the late
1980s, however, grants have been frozen; students can apply for a
student loan.
Vocabulary:
voluntary — добровольное
attend — посещать
self-governing — самоуправляемый
funding — финансирование
funding councils — советы по финансированию
to set up — основывать
significant — значительный
polytechnics — политехнические институты
extension techniques — технологии дистанционного образования
to reflect — отражать
decade — десятилетие
state grants — государственные гарантии
tuition fee — плата за обучение
parents income — доход родителей
student loan — студенческий заём
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY:
a) high-school diploma — школьный аттестат
graduation ceremony — выпускной экзамен
Bachelor of Science (B.S.) — бакалавр естественных наук
Bachelor of Art (B.A.) — бакалавр гуманитарных наук
Master of Art (M.A.) — магистр искусств
Master of Science (M.S.) — магистр естественных наук
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) — доктор философии
undergraduate student — студент 1-4(5) курсов
graduate student — студент 5-6 курсов
graduate school of robotics — магистратура (аспирантура) по
специальности робототехника
b) room (lodging) and board — проживание и питание
personal expenses — личные расходы
books and supplies — книги и материалы
to be eligible for admission — быть подходящей кандидатурой для
поступления
to enrol — зачислять
enrollment — зачисление
admissions office — приемная комиссия
student services office — департамент по работе со студентами
university bursar’s (казначей) office — бухгалтерия университета (офис
казначея)
Exercise 8.1. Translate into English:
1) В возрасте 16 лет каждый житель Великобритании обязан сдать экзамены
на получение Сертификата о среднем образовании.
2) Британские университеты являются полностью самоуправляемыми.
3) В 1992 году Политехническим институтам была предоставлено право стать
университетами.
4) Открытый университет, широко известный своими технологиями
дистанционного обучения, был основан в 1969 году.
5) В 60-е годы в Соединенном королевстве наметился значительный рост
числа университетов.
6) Размер гранта на обучение определяется исходя из дохода родителей.
GRAMMAR
§1. Сложное дополнение (Complex object)
Сложное дополнение — это сочетание существительного или местоимения в
объектном падеже (напр. me, him, us, them) с инфинитивом или причастием
I. Существует в трех основных вариантах:
1. С инфинитивом без частицы to или с причастием 1 после глаголов
восприятия
see I saw him drive the car. I saw them working in the lab.
watch We watched the plane land. We watched the children playing in the
yard.
notice Nobody noticed him go out. He didn’t notice that happen.
feel She felt somebody touch her hand. They didn’t feel the train start.
hear I didn’t hear you come into the room. I heard her playing piano.
В первом случае (вышеперечисленные глаголы с инфинитивом без частицы to)
подчеркивается факт действия, во втором (эти же глаголы с причастием I)
— процесс действия.
I saw him enter the house. — Я видел, как он вошел в дом.
I saw him entering the house. — Я видел, как он входил в дом.
2. С инфинитивом без частицы to после глаголов
to let: Don’t let them play in the street.
to make: Don’t make me laugh.
3. С инфинитивом с частицей to после глаголов
to want I want you to find me a place in the first row.
to expect I expect you to come in time.
to believe I believe her to be a very good teacher.
to know I know him to be a good student.
to advise I advise you to enter the institute.
to consider The climate in England is considered to be mild.
to order He is ordered not to be late.
to allow They allow to use dictionaries at the exam.
to like I would like you to finish your work,
to find I find your story to be very interesting.
Exercise 8.2. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form:
1. He made me (do) it all over again. 2. Her father made her (learn) the
lessons. 3. If you want us (make) the work quickly you should let us
(start) at once. 4. Would you like me (read) now? 5. They won’t let us
(leave) the classroom till our control work has been checked. 6. He
wouldn’t let the children (play) in his study. 7. Please let me (know)
the results of your exam as soon as possible. 8. He made us (wait) for
two hours. 9. I let him (go) early as he had done his task. 10. I’d like
him (enter) the university but I can’t make him (do) it. 11. I want her
(learn) English. 12. I heard the door (open) and saw my friend (come)
into the room. 13. I heard her (play) the piano. 14. I saw him (go out)
of the house. 15. The teacher advised us (use) dictionaries. 16. Her
father doesn’t allow her (go) to the cinema alone. 17. We expect our
basketball team (win) next game. 18. We don’t want you (tell) anything.
19. I saw them (open) the window. 20. That is too difficult for you to
do, let me (help) you.
Exercise 8.3. Translate into English:
1. Вы хотите, чтобы дети играли здесь? 2. Вы хотите, чтобы мы
встретились сегодня? 3. Вы ожидаете, работа будет сделана скоро? 4. Мы
ожидаем, что они хорошо проведут у нас время. 5. Я хочу, чтобы он
закончил эту работу. 6. Мы слышали, что она знает, когда мы сдаем
экзамен. 7. Вы хотите, чтобы мы обсудили этот вопрос сегодня? 8. Мы
ожидаем, что на этом месте будет построен новый дом. 9. Вы хотели бы,
чтобы работа была сделана сегодня?
§2. Причастие и герундий. Их отличие
(Participle I)
Причастие I (причастие настоящего времени), образованное при помощи
окончания -ing, имеет активную и страдательную формы:
активная (несовершенный вид) — asking,
активная (совершенный вид) — having asked.
страдательная (несовершенный) — being asked,
страдательная (совершенный) — having been asked.
Причастие I употребляется в функции:
1. Определения:
The man sitting at the table is our teacher. — Человек, сидящий за
столом — наш учитель.
The houses being built in our town are not very high. — Дома, строящиеся
в нашем городе, невысоки.
2. Обстоятельства:
Going home I met an old friend. — Идя домой, я встретил старого друга.
Having finished work I went home. — Закончив работу, я пошел домой.
Причастие II (Participle II)
Причастие II (причастие прошедшего времени) всегда пассивно. Образуется
оно прибавлением суффикса -ed к основе правильного глагола или путем
чередования звуков в корне неправильного глагола.
Причастие II употребляется в функции:
1. Определения.
The book translated from English is interesting. — Книга, переведенная с
английского языка, интересная.
2. Обстоятельства (причины и времени):
Given the task he began to work. — Когда ему дали задание он начал
работать.
Употребление герундия и его отличие от причастия I
Причастие — неличная форма глагола, промежуточная между глаголом и
прилагательным:
The boy playing in the yard is my brother, — Мальчик, (какой?) играющий
во дворе, — мой брат.
Герундий также является неличной формой глагола, промежуточной между
существительным и глаголом:
Smoking is harmful. — Курение (что?) вредно.
Иными словами, причастие—в большей степени «прилагательное» по своим
функциям, герундий — «существительное».
Герундий употребляется:
1. в качестве подлежащего:
Reading is useful.
2. как часть сказуемого после глаголов to finish, to start, to continue,
to go on, to keep и др.
He started reading the book.
3. как предложное дополнение: I am fond of reading.
4. как прямое дополнение: Do you mind my reading here?
5. как обстоятельство времени: After reading he closed the book.
6. как обстоятельство образа действия: Instead of reading he went to the
movies.
Активная форма герундия: giving, beating.
Пассивная форма герундия: being given, being beaten.
Exercise 8.4. Open the brackets using the gerund:
1. The grass in the garden is very dry, it needs (water). 2. It’s very
warm outside. You don’t need (put on) yourcoat. 3. The house is old, and
it wants (repair). 4. Famous people don’t need (introduce) themselves.
5. The carpet is covered with dust, it needs (sweep). 6. The shoes are
very dirty, they need (polish). 7. These shoes have a hole, they want
(mend). 8. The table cloth is quite clean, it doesn’t want (wash) yet.
9. The room needed (clean). 10. (learn) foreign languages is very
useful. 12. I know my hair wants (cut) but I never have time to go to
the hairdresser’s. 13. John needed (cheer up) when he heard that he’d
failed his exams. 14. You should tidy up the garden. — Yes, it needs
(tidy). The roses want (water), the peaches want (pick), the grass wants
(cut).
UNIT 9
MY FUTURE PROFESSION
I. Звуки [au], [dr], [br], [gr], [tr], [fr], [r].
II. Text A: «My future profession»,
Text B: «The Future of the engineering profession»
III.§1. Придаточные предложения условия и времени, действие которых
отнесено к будущему.
§2. Сослагательное наклонение в условных предложениях.
Exercise A
now — how — brown
out — now — house
louse — mouse — cows
out — loud — without
Exercise В brain — brakes — brand
brunch — branch — brave
Brazil — breach — break
breath — broth — breathe
Exercise D
treasure — trainer — trenchdraw — dribble — draft
drag — drab — drank
drain — dragon — drama
drape — dreadful — drugs
Dresden — dress — dry
drill — drop — drink
drive — drown — drum
drift — drier — droopy
Exercise С
brown — bread — bracetrack — trade — traffic
troops — trend — trail
translate — transmit — trance
Exercise E
France — French — fruit
fry — frame — free
three — thread — throat
threat — through — thrill
thirty — throne — threaten
Text A: “MY FUTURE PROFESSION”
Hi, there! Here is Ann Sokolova again. I am afraid this will be my last
meeting with you because I need to pack my suitcase. I am leaving for
Sochi tonight. I have passed all the exams successfully and I’m free
till the 1st of September.
As I have already told you, I was always good in mathematics and
physics. My parents bought me a computer when I was in the 10th form.
Since then I knew that I would become a specialist in computer
technologies — a computer engineer.
Computer industry is developing so fast, that it comprises almost all
spheres of professional life. No business now is possible without
computers. This is especially true about automated manufacturing of
products and robotics. Computer control of automated production opens
new horizons for the cheap and quality production of goods. Information
is now generated, transmitted, received, and stored electronically
through computer networks on a scale unprecedented in history, and there
is every indication that the explosive rate of growth in this field will
continue.
Computer engineering is a general field. It deals with both electric and
electronic industries.
Electronic engineering deals with the research, design, integration, and
application of circuits and devices used in the transmission and
processing of information.
Engineers in the field of electric and electronic engineering are
concerned with all aspects of electrical communications, from
fundamental questions such as «What is information?» to the highly
practical, such as the design of telephone systems. In designing
communication systems, engineers rely on various branches of advanced
mathematics, such as Fourier analysis, linear systems theory, linear
algebra, differential equations, and probability theory.
Engineers work on control systems which are used extensively in
automated manufacturing and in robotics.
Major developments in the field of communications and control have been
the replacement of analogue systems with digital systems; fibre optics
are used now instead of copper cables. Digital systems offer far greater
immunity to electrical noise. Fibre optics are likewise immune to
interference; they also have great carrying capacity, and are extremely
light and inexpensive to manufacture.
Computer engineering is now the most rapidly growing field. The
electronics of computers is the design and manufacture of memory
systems, of central processing units, and of peripheral devices. The
most prospective industry now is the Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
and new computer architectures. The field of computer science is closely
related to computer engineering; however, the task of making computers
more «intelligent» (artificial intelligence), through creation of
sophisticated programs or development of higher level machine languages
or other means, is generally regarded as the dream of computer science.
One current trend in computer engineering is microminiaturization.
Engineers continue to work to fit greater and greater numbers of circuit
elements onto smaller and smaller chips.
Another trend is towards increasing the speed of computer operations
through the use of parallel processors and superconducting materials.
So, as you see, there are a lot of employment opportunities in my field.
I don’t worry about finding a job. The most important thing for me now
is to study well and to graduate from the Academy.
Vocabulary:
to comprise — включать в себя
automated manufacturing of products — автоматизированное производство
товаров
robotics — робототехника
horizons — горизонты
cheap — дешевый
to generate — генерировать, производить
to transmit — передавать
to store — хранить
scale — масштаб
unprecedented in history — не имеющий прецедентов в истории
indication — указание, свидетельство
explosive — взрывной
to deal with — иметь дело с, заниматься чем-либо
integration — интеграция
application — приложение, использование
circuits — электрические схемы, цепи
device — устройство
transmission — передача
processing — обработка
to rely — полагаться
Fourier analysis — анализ Фурье
linear systems theory — теория линейных систем
linear algebra — линейная алгебра
differential equations — дифференциальные уравнения
probability theory — теория вероятности
extensively — широко
replacement — замещение
fibre optics — оптоволоконные технологии
copper — медь
digital — цифровой
immunity — защищенность, невосприимчивость
carrying capacity — пропускная способность
light — легкий
rapidly growing — быстрорастущий
artificial intelligence — искусственный разум
sophisticated — сложный
superconducting — сверхпроводимость
ADD TO YOUR ACTIVE VOCABULARY:
a) mechanical engineer — инженер-механик
electric engineer — инженер-электрик
electronic engineer — инженер электроник
computer engineer — инженер-компьютерщик
military engineer — военный инженер
b) prestigious job (work) — престижная работа
well-paid job — высокооплачиваемая работа
employee — наемный рабочий
employer — наймодатель
businessman — предприниматель, бизнесмен
state-employed — государственный служащий
white-collar worker — «белый воротничок», работник умственного труда
blue-collar worker — «синий воротничок», работник физического труда
skilled worker — квалифицированный рабочий
unskilled worker — неквалифицированный рабочий
experienced worker — опытный работник
c) to be hired for a job — быть нанятым на выполнение работы
to look for a new job (work, position) — искать новую работу
to apply for a new job — претендовать на какую-либо должность
application for a position of — заявление на какую-либо должность
resume — резюме
C.V. (curriculum vitae) — автобиография
to be fired — быть уволенным
to retire — уходить на пенсию
to be unemployed — быть безработным
Exercise 9.1. Translate into English:
1. Родители купили мне компьютер, когда я училась(ся) в десятом классе.
2. Никакой современный бизнес не возможен без компьютерной техники.
3. Компьютерная индустрия — наиболее быстроразвивающеся производство.
4. Компьютерное управление автоматизированными производственными линиями
открывает новые горизонты дешевого и качественного производства товаров.
5. Крупным достижением в сфере коммуникации является замена аналоговых
систем на цифорвые.
6. В настоящее время оптоволоконные цифровые технологии обеспечивают
более качественную и доступную связь, чем аналоговые системы.
Exercise 9.2. How do you see your future profession? Please answer the
following questions:
1) What kind of work are you interested in?
a) well paid
b) interesting
c) in a large and famous company
d) quiet
e) in an industry which has a future
f) prestigious
g) not to sit the whole day in the office
h) to travel a lot
2) What position would you like to have?
a) to manage people — manager
b) to work for someone else — an employee
c) to be your own boss — self-employed, businessman
d) to be responsible for everything — top manager, director
e) to work for the state — state employee
Exercise 9.3. Please discuss with your group advantages and
disadvantages of your future profession. Do you think that engineering
profession is prestigios? Is it well-paid? How difficult is it to find a
good work in this field?
Text B «THE FUTURE OF THE ENGINEERING PROFESSION»
Among various recent trends in the engineering profession
computerization is the most widespread. The trend in modern engineering
offices is also towards computerization. Computers are increasingly used
for solving complex problems as well as for handling, storing, and
generating the enormous volume of data modern engineers must work with.
Scientific methods of engineering are applied in several fields not
connected directly to manufacture and construction. Modern engineering
is characterized by the broad application of what is known as systems
engineering principles.
Engineers in industry work not only with machines but also with people,
to determine, for example, how machines can be operated most efficiently
by workers. A small change in the location of the controls of a machine
or of its position with relation to other machines or equipment, or a
change in the muscular movements of the operator, often results in
greatly increased production. This type of engineering work is called
time-study engineering.
A related field of engineering, human-factors engineering, also known as
ergonomics, received wide attention in the late 1970s and 1980s when the
safety of nuclear reactors was questioned following serious accidents
that were caused by operator errors, design failures, and malfunctioning
equipment.
Human-factors engineering seeks to establish criteria for the efficient,
human-centred design of, among other things, the large, complicated
control panels that monitor and govern nuclear reactor operations.
General understanding:
1. What is the most widespread trend in the engineering profession?
2. What are computers used for in modern engineering?
3. What approaches are used in modern engineering?
4. What is «ergonomics»?
5. What does human-factors engineering deal with?
GRAMMAR
§1. Придаточные предложения условия и времени, действие которых отнесено
к будущему
В придаточных предложениях условия и времени с союзами
If (если),
when (когда),
after (после),
before (перед тем, как),
as soon as (как только), ]
unless (если не),
until (до тех пор, пока не),
будущее время заменяется формой настоящего времени, но на русский язык
переводится будущим, например:
If you help me, I shall do this work. — Если ты поможешь мне, я сделаю
эту работу.
As soon as I get free, I’ll come to you. — Как только я освобожусь, я
приду к тебе.
We shall not begin until you come. — Мы не начнем, пока ты не придешь.
Exercise 9.4. Open the brackets and put the verbs in the right form:
1. He (go) out when the weather (get) warmer. 2. I (wait) for you until
you (come) back from school. 3. I’m afraid the train (start) before we
(come) to the station. 4. We (go) to the country tomorrow if the weather
(to be) fine. 5. We (not pass) the examination next year if we not
(work) harder. 6. If you (not drive) more carefully you (have) an
accident. 7. You (be) late if you (not take) a taxi. 8. I (finish)
reading this book before I (go) to bed. 9. You must (send) us a telegram
as soon as you (arrive). 10. We (have) a picnic tomorrow if it (be) a
fine day. 11. We (go) out when it (stop) raining. 12. We (not to have)
dinner until you (come). 13. I’m sure they (write) to us when they
(know) our new address.
Прочитайте примеры и запомните наиболее употребительные суффиксы
существительных
-ег/ог — teacher, writer, actor, doctor
-ist — scientist, artist, dentist
-ment — government, movement, development
-(t)ion — revolution, translation, operation
-ity/ty — popularity, honesty, ability
-sion/ssion — revision, session, discussion,
-ness — happiness, illness, darkness
Прочитайте примеры и запомните наиболее употребительные суффиксы и
префиксы глаголов.
re- — rewrite, rebuild, reconstruct,
mis- — misprint, misunderstand, miscount.
Прочитайте примеры и запомните наиболее употребительные суффиксы и
префиксы прилагательных.
un- — unhappy, unable, uncomfortable
dis- — dishonest, discouraging, disconnectng
Прочитайте примеры и запомните основные суффиксы числительных.
-teen — fifteen, sixteen, eighteen
-ty — twenty, thirty, sixty, ninety
-th — fourth, seventh, eighteenth
Exercise 9.5. Make up adjectives from the following words:
colour, beauty, peace, use, hope, truth, rain, help, power, pain, care.
§2. Сослагательное наклонение в условных предложениях
Сослагательное наклонение выражает возможность, нереальность,
предположительность действия.
Изъявительное наклонение.
If I learn his address I shall write to him. — Если я узнаю его адрес, я
ему напишу.
Сослагательное наклонение:
If I knew his address I would write to him. — Если бы я знал его адрес
(сейчас), я написал бы ему (сейчас или в ближайшем будущем). Глагол в
придаточном предложении — в форме Past Indefinite, в главном — в форме
Future in the Past.
В случае, если действие, описываемое сослагательным наклонением,
относится к прошедшему времени, в главном предложении используется форма
будущего совершенного с точки зрения прошедшего Future Perfect in the
Past, а в придаточном — прошедшее совершенное Past Perfect.
If I had known his address I would have written to him. — Если бы я знал
его адрес (в прошлом), я написал бы ему (в прошлом же).
I wish I lived not far from here. (настоящее время). —Жаль, что я не
живу поблизости.
I wish I had lived not far from here (прошедшее время). — Жаль, что я не
жил поблизости.
Exercise 9.6. Translate into Russian:
1. If I came later I would be late for the lesson. 2. If he had known
the time-table he wouldn’t have missed the train. 3. It would be better
if you learned the oral topics. 3. I wish I had known this before the
examination. 4. I would have come to you if you had not lived so far
away. 5. If I had seen you yesterday I would have given you my
text-book. 6. If I were in your place I wouldn’t buy the tickets
beforehand. 7. If I had known that you needed help I would have helped
you.
UNIT 1
METALS
I. Text A: «Metals», Text B: «Steel», Text C: «Methods of steel heat
treatment»
II. Famous Scientists. Dmitry Ivanovlch Mendeleyev.
Text A: «METALS»
Metals are materials most widely used in industry because of their
properties. The study of the production and properties of metals is
known as metallurgy.
The separation between the atoms in metals is small, so most metals are
dense. The atoms are arranged regularly and can slide over each other.
That is why metals are malleable (can be deformed and bent without
fracture) and ductile (can be drawn into wire). Metals vary greatly in
their properties. For example, lead is soft and can be bent by hand,
while iron can only be worked by hammering at red heat.
The regular arrangement of atoms in metals gives them a crystalline
structure. Irregular crystals are called grains. The properties of the
metals depend on the size, shape, orientation, and composition of these
grains. In general, a metal with small grains will be harder and
stronger than one with coarse grains.
Heat treatment such as quenching, tempering, or annealing controls the
nature of the grains and their size in the metal. Small amounts of other
metals (less than 1 per cent) are often added to a pure metal. This is
called alloying (легирование) and it changes the grain structure and
properties of metals.
All metals can be formed by drawing, rolling, hammering and extrusion,
but some require hot-working. Metals are subject to metal fatigue and to
creep (the slow increase in length under stress) causing deformation and
failure. Both effects are taken into account by engineers when
designing, for example, airplanes, gas-turbines, and pressure vessels
for high-temperature chemical processes. Metals can be worked using
machine-tools such as lathe, milling machine, shaper and grinder.
The ways of working a metal depend on its properties. Many metals can be
melted and cast in moulds, but special conditions are required for
metals that react with air.
Vocabulary:
property — свойство
metallurgy — металлургия
separation — разделение, отстояние
dense — плотный
arrangement — расположение
regularly — регулярно, правильно
to slide — скользить
malleable — ковкий, податливый, способный деформироваться
bent pp of bend — гнуть
to fracture — ломать
ductile — эластичный, ковкий
to draw — волочить, тянуть
wire — проволока
lead — свинец
iron — железо, чугун
grain — зерно
to depend — зависеть
size — размер, величина
shape — форма, формировать
composition — состав
coarse — грубый, крупный
treatment — обработка
quenching — закалка
tempering — отпуск после закалки, нормализация
annealing — отжиг, отпуск
rolling — прокатка
to hammer — ковать (напр. молотом)
extrusion — экструзия
metal fatigue — усталость металла
creep — ползучесть
stress — давление,
failure — повреждение, разрушение
vessel — сосуд, котел, судно
lathe — токарный станок
milling machine — фрезерный станок
shaper — строгальный станок
grinder — шлифовальный станок
to melt — плавить, плавиться расплавить
to cast — отливать, отлить
mould — форма (для отливки)
General understanding:
1. What are metals and what do we call metallurgy?
2. Why are most metals dense?
3. Why are metals malleable?
4. What is malleability?
5. What are grains?
6. What is alloying?
7. What is crystalline structure?
8. What do the properties of metals depend on?
9. What changes the size of grains in metals?
10. What are the main processes of metal forming?
11. How are metals worked?
12. What is creeping?
Exercise 1.1. Find the following words and word combinations in the
text:
1. Свойства металлов
2. расстояние между атомами
3. правильное расположение
4. сильно отличаются по своим свойствам
5. кристаллическая структура
6. размер зерен
7. форма зерен
8. закалка
9. отжиг
10.волочение
11.прокатка
12.ковка
13.экструзия
14. структура и свойства зерна
15. горячая обработка
16. усталость металла
17. ползучесть металла
18. плавка и отливка в формы
19. способы обработки металлов
Exercise 1.2. Complete the following sentences:
1. Metals are…
2. Metallurgy is…
3. Most metals are…
4. The regular arrangement of atoms in metals…
5. Irregular crystals…
6. The properties of the metals depend…
7. Metals with small grains will be…
8….controls the nature of the grains in the metal.
9. Alloying is…
10. All metals can be formed by…
11. Creep is…
12. Metals can be worked using…
Exercise 1.3. Explain in English the meaning of the following words:
1. malleability
2. crystalline structure
3. grains
4. heat treatment
5. alloying
6. creep
Exercise 1.4. Translate into English:
1. Металлы — плотные материалы потому, что между атомами в металлах
малое расстояние.
2. Металлы имеют кристаллическую структуру из-за правильного
расположения атомов.
3. Чем меньше зерна, тем тверже металл.
4. Закалка и отжиг изменяют форму и размер зерен в металлах.
5. Легирование изменяет структуру зерен и свойства металлов.
6. Металл деформируется и разрушается из-за усталости и ползучести.
Text В: «STEEL»
The most important metal in industry is iron and its alloy — steel.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is strong and stiff, but
corrodes easily through rusting, although stainless and other special
steels resist corrosion. The amount of carbon in a steel influences its
properties considerably. Steels of low carbon content (mild steels) are
quite ductile and are used in the manufacture of sheet iron, wire, and
pipes. Medium-carbon steels containing from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent carbon
are tougher and stronger and are used as structural steels. Both mild
and medium-carbon steels are suitable for forging and welding.
High-carbon steels contain from 0.4 to 1.5 per cent carbon, are hard and
brittle and are used in cutting tools, surgical instruments, razor
blades and springs. Tool steel, also called silver steel, contains about
1 per cent carbon and is strengthened and toughened by quenching and
tempering.
The inclusion of other elements affects the properties of the steel.
Manganese gives extra strength and toughness. Steel containing 4 per
cent silicon is used for transformer cores or electromagnets because it
has large grains acting like small magnets. The addition of chromium
gives extra strength and corrosion resistance, so we can get rust-proof
steels. Heating in the presence of carbon or nitrogen-rich materials is
used to form a hard surface on steel (case-hardening). High-speed
steels, which are extremely important in machine-tools, contain chromium
and tungsten plus smaller amounts of vanadium, molybdenum and other
metals.
Vocabulary:
alloy — сплав
carbon— углерод
stiff — жесткий
to corrode — разъедать, ржаветь
rusty — ржавый
stainless — нержавеющий
to resist — сопротивляться
considerably — значительно, гораздо
tough — крепкий, жесткий, прочный, выносливый
forging — ковка
welding — сварка
brittle — хрупкий, ломкий
cutting tools — режущие инструменты
surgical instruments — хирургические инструменты
blade — лезвие
spring — пружина
inclusion — включение
to affect — влиять
manganese — марганец
silicon — кремний
rust-proof — нержавеющий
nitrogen — азот
tungsten — вольфрам
General understanding:
1. What is steel?
2. What are the main properties of steel?
3. What are the drawbacks of steel?
4. What kinds of steel do you know? Where are they used?
5. What gives the addition of manganese, silicon and chromium to steel?
6. What can be made of mild steels (medium-carbon steels, high-carbon
steels)?
7. What kind of steels can be forged and welded?
8. How can we get rust-proof (stainless) steel?
9. What is used to form a hard surface on steel?
10. What are high-speed steels alloyed with?
Exercise 1.5. Find the following words and word combinations in the
text:
1. сплав железа и углерода
2. прочный и жесткий
3. легко коррозирует
4. нержавеющая сталь
5. низкое содержание углерода
6. ковкость
7. листовое железо, проволока, трубы
8. конструкционные стали
9. пригодны для ковки и сварки
10. твердый и хрупкий
11. режущие инструменты
12. хирургические инструменты
13. инструментальная сталь
14.упрочнять
15. добавление марганца (кремния, хрома, вольфрама, молибдена, ванадия)
Text С: «METHODS OF STEEL HEAT TREATMENT»
Quenching is a heat treatment when metal at a high temperature is
rapidly cooled by immersion in water or oil. Quenching makes steel
harder and more brittle, with small grains structure.
Tempering is a heat treatment applied to steel and certain alloys.
Hardened steel after quenching from a high temperature is too hard and
brittle for many applications and is also brittle. Tempering, that is
re-heating to an intermediate temperature and cooling slowly, reduces
this hardness and brittleness. Tempering temperatures depend on the
composition of the steel but are frequently between 100 and 650 °C.
Higher temperatures usually give a softer, tougher product. The color of
the oxide film produced on the surface of the heated metal often serves
as the indicator of its temperature.
Annealing is a heat treatment in which a material at high temperature is
cooled slowly. After cooling the metal again becomes malleable and
ductile (capable of being bent many times without cracking).
All these methods of steel heat treatment are used to obtain steels with
certain mechanical properties for certain needs.
Vocabulary:
to immerse — погружать
to apply — применять
intermediate — промежуточный
oxide film — оксидная пленка
annealing — отжиг, отпуск
cracking — растрескивание
General understanding:
1. What can be done to obtain harder steel?
2. What makes steel more soft and tough?
3. What makes steel more malleable and ductile?
4. What can serve as the indicator of metal temperature while heating
it?
5. What temperature range is used for tempering?
6. What are the methods of steel heat treatment used for?
Exercise 1.6. Translate into English the following words and word
combinations:
1. температура нормализации
2. мелкозернистая структура
3. быстрое охлаждение
4. закаленная сталь
5. состав стали
6. окисная пленка
7. индикатор температуры
8. медленное охлаждение
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev is a famous Russian chemist. He is best
known for his development of the periodic table of the properties of the
chemical elements. This table displays that elements’ properties are
changed periodically when they are arranged according to atomic weight.
Mendeleyev was born in 1834 in Tobolsk, Siberia. He studied chemistry at
the University of St. Petersburg, and in 1859 he was sent to study at
the University of Heidelberg. Mendeleyev returned to St. Petersburg and
became Professor of Chemistry at the Technical Institute in 1863. He
became Professor of General Chemistry at the University of St.
Petersburg in 1866. Mendeleyev was a well-known teacher, and, because
there was no good textbook in chemistry at that time, he wrote the
two-volume «Principles of Chemistry» which became a classic textbook in
chemistry.
In this book Mendeleyev tried to classify the elements according to
their chemical properties. In 1869 he published his first version of his
periodic table of elements. In 1871 he published an improved version of
the periodic table, in which he left gaps for elements that were not
known at that time. His table and theories were proved later when three
predicted elements: gallium, germanium, and scandium were discovered.
Mendeleyev investigated the chemical theory of solution. He found that
the best proportion of alcohol and water in vodka is 40%. He also
investigated the thermal expansion of liquids and the nature of
petroleum.
In 1893 he became director of the Bureau of Weights and Measures in St.
Petersburg and held this position until his death in 1907.
UNIT 2
METALWORKING
I. Text A: Metalworking processes: Rolling. Extrusion,
Text B: Drawing. Forging. Sheet metal forming,
Text C: Metalworking and Metal Properties.
II. Famous scientists. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.
Text A: «METALWORKING PROCESSES»
Metals are important in industry because they can be easily deformed
into useful shapes. A lot of metalworking processes have been developed
for certain applications. They can be divided into five broad groups:
1. rolling,
2. extrusion,
3. drawing,
4. forging,
5. sheet-metal forming.
During the first four processes metal is subjected to large amounts of
strain (deformation). But if deformation goes at a high temperature, the
metal will recrystallize — that is, new strain-free grains will grow
instead of deformed grains. For this reason metals are usually rolled,
extruded, drawn, or forged above their recrystallization temperature.
This is called hot working. Under these conditions there is no limit to
the compressive plastic strain to which the metal can be subjected.
Other processes are performed below the recrystallization temperature.
These are called cold working. Cold working hardens metal and makes the
part stronger. However, there is a limit to the strain before a cold
part cracks.
Rolling
Rolling is the most common metalworking process. More than 90 percent of
the aluminum, steel and copper produced is rolled at least once in the
course of production. The most common rolled product is sheet. Rolling
can be done either hot or cold. If the rolling is finished cold, the
surface will be smoother and the product stronger.
Extrusion
Extrusion is pushing the billet to flow through the orifice of a die.
Products may have either a simple or a complex cross section. Aluminum
window frames are the examples of complex extrusions.
Tubes or other hollow parts can also be extruded. The initial piece is a
thick-walled tube, and the extruded part is shaped between a die on the
outside of the tube and a mandrel held on the inside.
In impact extrusion (also called back-extrusion) (штамповка
выдавливанием), the workpiece is placed in the bottom of a hole and a
loosely fitting ram is pushed against it. The ram forces the metal to
flow back around it, with the gap between the ram and the die
determining the wall thickness. The example of this process is the
manufacturing of aluminum beer cans.
Vocabulary:
useful — полезный
shape — форма, формировать
rolling — прокатка
extrusion — экструзия, выдавливание
drawing — волочение
forging — ковка
sheet — лист
to subject — подвергать
amount — количество
condition — состояние, условие
perform — выполнять, проводить
to harden — делаться твердым, упрочняться
at least — по крайней мере
common — общий
billet — заготовка, болванка
orifice — отверстие
die — штамп, пуансон, матрица, фильера, волочильная доска
cross section — поперечное сечение
window frame — рама окна
tube — труба
hollow — полый
initial — первоначальный, начальный
thick-walled — толстостенный
mandrel — оправка, сердечник
impact — удар
loosely — свободно, с зазором
fitting — зд. посадка
ram — пуансон, плунжер
force — сила
gap — промежуток, зазор
to determine — устанавливать, определять
General understanding:
1. Why are metals so important in industry?
2. What are the main metalworking processes?
3. Why are metals worked mostly hot?
4. What properties does cold working give to metals?
5. What is rolling? Where is it used?
6. What is extrusion? What shapes can be obtained after extrusion?
7. What are the types of extrusion?
Exercise 2.1. Find the following in the text:
1. могут легко деформироваться
2. нужные формы
3. подвергать большим деформациям
4. зерна свободные от деформации
5. температура перекристаллизации
6. пластическая деформация сжатия
7. самый обычный процесс обработки металла
8. самое обычное изделие проката
9. отверстие фильеры
10. первоначальный
11. сложное сечение
12. пустотелые детали
13. свободно входящий плунжер
14. зазор между плунжером (пуансоном) и штампом
15. толщина стенки
Exercise 2.2. Translate into English:
1. Способность металла перекристаллизовываться при высокой температуре
используется при горячей
обработке.
2. Перекристаллизация — это рост новых, свободных от деформации зерен.
3. Во время горячей обработки металл может подвергаться очень большой
пластической деформации сжатия.
4. Холодная обработка делает металл тверже и прочнее, но некоторые
металлы имеют предел деформации.
5. Листовой прокат может производиться горячим или холодным.
6. Поверхность холоднокатаного листа более гладкая и он прочнее.
7. Поперечное сечение фильеры для экструзии может быть простым или
сложным.
8. Алюминиевые и медные сплавы являются наилучшими для экструзии из-за
их пластичности при деформации.
9. Алюминиевые банки, тюбики для зубной пасты являются примерами
использования штамповки выдавливанием.
10. Толщина стенки алюминиевой банки определяется зазором между пунсоном
и штампом.
Text В: «DRAWING»
Drawing consists of pulling metal through a die. One type is wire
drawing. The diameter reduction that can be achieved in one die is
limited, but several dies in series can be used to get the desired
reduction.
Sheet metal forming
Sheet metal forming (штамповка листового металла) is widely used when
parts of certain shape and size are needed. It includes forging, bending
and shearing. One characteristic of sheet metal forming is that the
thickness of the sheet changes little in processing. The metal is
stretched just beyond its yield point (2 to 4 percent strain) in order
to retain the new shape. Bending can be done by pressing between two
dies. Shearing is a cutting operation similar to that used for cloth.
Each of these processes may be used alone, but often all three are used
on one part. For example, to make the roof of an automobile from a flat
sheet, the edges are gripped and the piece pulled in tension over a
lower die. Next an upper die is pressed over the top, finishing the
forming operation (штамповку), and finally the edges are sheared off to
give the final dimensions.
Forging
Forging is the shaping of a piece of metal by pushing with open or
closed dies. It is usually done hot in order to reduce the required
force and increase the metal’s plasticity.
Open-die forging is usually done by hammering a part between two flat
faces. It is used to make parts that are too big to be formed in a
closed die or in cases where only a few parts are to be made. The
earliest forging machines lifted a large hammer that was then dropped on
the workpiece, but now air or steam hammers are used, since they allow
greater control over the force and the rate of forming. The part is
shaped by moving or turning it between blows.
Closed-die forging is the shaping of hot metal within the walls of two
dies that come together to enclose the workpiece on all sides. The
process starts with a rod or bar cut to the length needed to fill the
die. Since large, complex shapes and large strains are involved, several
dies may be used to go from the initial bar to the final shape. With
closed dies, parts can be made to close tolerances so that little finish
machining is required.
Two closed-die forging operations are given special names. They are
upsetting and coining. Coining takes its name from the final stage of
forming metal coins, where the desired imprint is formed on a metal disk
that is pressed in a closed die. Coining involves small strains and is
done cold. Upsetting involves a flow of the metal back upon itself. An
example of this process is the pushing of a short length of a rod
through a hole, clamping the rod, and then hitting the exposed length
with a die to form the head of a nail or bolt.
Vocabulary:
to pull — тянуть
reduction — сокращение
to achieve — достигать
in series — серия, последовательно
beyond — выше, свыше
yield point — точка текучести металла
to retain — сохранять, удерживать
to bend — гнуть
shearing — обрезка, отрезание
edge — край
to grip — схватывать
lower die — нижний штамп
upper die — верхний штамп
forming operation — операция штампования
dimension — измерение, размеры
required — необходимый
increase — увеличение
open-die forging — ковка в открытом штампе (подкладном)
hammering — ковка, колотить
within — внутри, в пределах
to enclose — заключать
rod — прут, стержень
bar — прут, брусок
involved — включенный
tolerance — допуск
upsetting — высадка, выдавливание
blow — удар
coining — чеканка
imprint — отпечаток
clamp — зажим
to hit — ударять
General understanding:
1. How can the reduction of diameter in wire drawing be achieved?
2. What is sheet metal forming and where it can be used?
3. What is close-die forging?
4. What is forging?
5. What are the types of forging?
6. What types of hammers are used now?
7. Where are coining and upsetting used?
8. What process is used in wire production?
9. Describe the process of making the roof of a car.
Exercise 2.3. Find the following word combinations in the text:
1. протягивание металла через фильеру
2. волочение проволоки
3. уменьшение диаметра
4. толщина листа
5. растягивать выше точки текучести
6. сохранить новую форму
7. края отрезаются
8. конечные размеры
9. уменьшить необходимое усилие
10. увеличить пластичность металла
11. воздушные или паровые молоты
12. сила и скорость штампования
13. внутри стенок двух штампов
14. отделочная обработка
15. малые допуски
Exercise 2.4. Translate into English:
1. При волочении проволоки диаметр отверстия волочильной доски каждый
раз уменьшается.
2. Штамповка листового металла включает в себя ковку, изгиб и обрезку.
3. Небольшая деформация листа при растяжении помогает сохранить новую
форму детали.
4. Изменение формы при штамповке производится путем сжатия между двумя
штампами.
5. Края листа при штамповке отрезаются для получения конечных размеров.
6. При проковке деталь должна быть горячей для уменьшения необходимых
усилий и увеличения пластичности металла.
7. После ковки в закрытых штампах детали не требуют большой механической
обработки.
8. При чеканке деформация металла невелика и отпечаток формируется на
поверхности металла.
9. Высадка используется для изготовления головок гвоздей и болтов.
Text C: «METALWORKING AND METAL PROPETIES»
An important feature of hot working is that it provides the improvement
of mechanical properties of metals. Hot-working (hot-rolling or
hot-forging) eliminates porosity, directionality, and segregation that
are usually present in metals. Hot-worked products have better ductility
and toughness than the unworked casting. During the forging of a bar,
the grains of the metal become greatly elongated in the direction of
flow. As a result, the toughness of the metal is greatly improved in
this direction and weakened in directions transverse to the flow. Good
forging makes the flow lines in the finished part oriented so as to lie
in the direction of maximum stress when the part is placed in service.
The ability of a metal to resist thinning and fracture during
cold-working operations plays an important role in alloy selection. In
operations that involve stretching, the best alloys are those which grow
stronger with strain (are strain hardening) — for example, the
copper-zinc alloy, brass, used for cartridges and the aluminum-magnesium
alloys in beverage cans, which exhibit greater strain hardening.
Fracture of the workpiece during forming can result from inner flaws in
the metal. These flaws often consist of nonmetallic inclusions such as
oxides or sulfides that are trapped in the metal during refining. Such
inclusions can be avoided by proper manufacturing procedures.
The ability of different metals to undergo strain varies. The change of
the shape after one forming operation is often limited by the tensile
ductility of the metal. Metals such as copper and aluminum are more
ductile in such operations than other metals.
Vocabulary
feature — черта, особенность
to provide — обеспечивать
improvement — улучшение
property — свойство
eliminate — ликвидировать, исключать
porosity — пористость
directional — направленный
to segregate — разделять
casting — отливка
elongated — удлиненный
to weaken — ослабевать, ослаблять
transverse — поперечный
flow — течение, поток
finished — отделанный
thinning — утончение
fracture — разрушение
strain hardening — деформационное упрочнение
brass — латунь
beverage — напиток
can — консервная банка
to exhibit — проявлять
inner — внутренний
flaws — недостатки, дефекты кристаллической решетки
inclusion — включение
trapped — зд. заключенный
refining — очищать, очистка
to avoid — избегать
to undergo — подвергаться
tensile ductility — пластичность при растяжении
General understanding:
1. What process improves the mechanical properties of metals?
2. What new properties have hot-worked products?
3. How does the forging of a bar affect the grains of the metal? What is
the result of this?
4. How are the flow lines in the forged metal oriented and how does it
affect the strength of the forged part?
5. What are the best strain-hardening alloys? Where can we use them?
6. What are the inner flaws in the metal?
7. Can a metal fracture because of the inner flaw?
8. What limits the change of the shape during forming operations?
Exercise 2.5. Find the following in the text:
1. важная особенность горячей обработки
2. улучшение механических свойств металла
3. необработанная отливка
4. направление максимального напряжения
5. способность сопротивляться утончению и разрушению
6. проявлять большее деформационное упрочнение
7. разрушение детали при штамповке
8. внутренние дефекты в металле
9. неметаллические включения
10. способность металлов подвергаться деформации
11. ограничивается пластичностью металла при растяжении
Exercise 2.6. Translate into English:
1. Горячая обработка металла улучшает его механические свойства и
устраняет пористость и внутренние дефекты.
2. Удлинение зерен в направлении текучести при ковке значительно
улучшает прочность металла в этом направлении и уменьшает его прочность
в поперечном.
3. Хорошая проковка ориентирует линии текучести в направлении
максимального напряжения.
4. Деформационное упрочнение металла при холодной обработке очень важно
для получения металлов с улучшенными свойствами.
5. Внутренние дефекты металла — это неметаллические включения типа
окислов или сульфидов.
6. Изменение формы при штамповании металлических деталей ограничивается
пластичностью металла при растяжении.
FAMOUS SCIENTISTS
Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was a famous Russian writer, chemist, and
astronomer who made a lot in literature and science.
Lomonosov was born on November 19, 1711, in Denisovka (now Lomonosov),
near Archangelsk, and studied at the University of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences in St. Petersburg. After studying in Germany at the
Universities of Marburg and Freiberg, Lomonosov returned to St.
Petersburg in 1745 to teach chemistry and built a teaching and research
laboratory there four years later.
Lomonosov is often called the founder of Russian science. He was an
innovator in many fields. As a scientist he rejected the phlogiston
theory of matter commonly accepted at the time and he anticipated the
kinetic theory of gases. He regarded heat as a form of motion, suggested
the wave theory of light, and stated the idea of conservation of matter.
Lomonosov was the first person to record the freezing of mercury and to
observe the atmosphere of Venus during a solar transit.
Interested in the development of Russian education, Lomonosov helped to
found Moscow State University in 1755, and in the same year wrote a
grammar that reformed the Russian literary language by combining Old
Church Slavonic with modern language. In 1760 he published the first
history of Russia. He also revived the art of Russian mosaic and built a
mosaic and colored-glass factory. Most of his achievements, however,
were unknown outside Russia.
UNIT3
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
I. Text A: «Materials science and technology»,
Text B: «Mechanical Properties of Materials».
II. Famous people of science and technology: Igor Sikorskly, Andrey
Tupolev.
Text A: «MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Of MATERIALS»
Materials Science and Technology is the study of materials and how they
can be fabricated to meet the needs of modern technology. Using the
laboratory techniques and knowledge of physics, chemistry, and
metallurgy, scientists are finding new ways of using metals, plastics
and other materials.
Engineers must know how materials respond to external forces, such as
tension, compression, torsion, bending, and shear. All materials respond
to these forces by elastic deformation. That is, the materials return
their original size and form when the external force disappears. The
materials may also have permanent deformation or they may fracture. The
results of external forces are creep and fatigue.
Compression is a pressure causing a decrease in volume. When a material
is subjected to a bending, shearing, or torsion (twisting) force, both
tensile and compressive forces are simultaneously at work. When a metal
bar is bent, one side of it is stretched and subjected to a tensional
force, and the other side is compressed.
Tension is a pulling force; for example, the force in a cable holding a
weight. Under tension, a material usually stretches, returning to its
original length if the force does not exceed the material’s elastic
limit. Under larger tensions, the material does not return completely to
its original condition, and under greater forces the material ruptures.
Fatigue is the growth of cracks under stress. It occurs when a
mechanical part is subjected to a repeated or cyclic stress, such as
vibration. Even when the maximum stress never exceeds the elastic limit,
failure of the material can occur even after a short time. No
deformation is seen during fatigue, but small localized cracks develop
and propagate through the material until the remaining cross-sectional
area cannot support the maximum stress of the cyclic force. Knowledge of
tensile stress, elastic limits, and the resistance of materials to creep
and fatigue are of basic importance in engineering.
Creep is a slow, permanent deformation that results from a steady force
acting on a material. Materials at high temperatures usually suffer from
this deformation. The gradual loosening of bolts and the deformation of
components of machines and engines are all the examples of creep. In
many cases the slow deformation stops because deformation eliminates the
force causing the creep. Creep extended over a long time finally leads
to the rupture of the material.
Vocabulary
bar— брусок, прут
completely — полностью, совершенно
compression — сжатие
creep — ползучесть
cross-sectional area — площадь поперечного сечения
cyclic stress — циклическое напряжение
decrease — уменьшение
elastic deformation — упругая деформация
elastic limit — предел упругости
exceed — превышать
external forces — внешние силы
fatigue — усталость металла
fracture — перелом, излом
loosen — ослаблять, расшатывать
permanent deformation — постоянная деформация
remaining — оставшийся
shear — срез
simultaneously — одновременно
to stretch — растягивать
technique — методы
tension — напряженность
to propagate — распространяться
to bend — гнуть, согнуть
to extend — расширять, продолжаться
to meet the needs — отвечать требованиям
to occur — происходить
to respond — отвечать реагировать
to suffer — страдать
torsion — кручение
twisting — закручивание, изгиб
volume — объем, количество
rupture — разрыв
General understanding:
1. What are the external forces causing the elastic deformation of
materials? Describe those forces that change the form and size of
materials.
2. What are the results of external forces?
3. What kinds of deformation are the combinations of tension and
compression?
4. What is the result of tension? What happens if the elastic limit of
material is exceeded under tension?
5. What do we call fatigue? When does it occur? What are the results of
fatigue?
6. What do we call creep? When does this type of permanent deformation
take place? What are the results of creep?
Exercise 3.1. Find the following in the text:
1. отвечать требованиям современной технологии
2. используя лабораторные методы
3. новые способы использования металлов
4. сжатие, растяжение, изгиб, кручение, срез
5. возвращать первоначальный размер и форму
6. внешняя сила
7. постоянная деформация
8. уменьшение объема
9. растягивающие и сжимающие силы
10. превышать предел упругости материала
11. повторяющиеся циклические напряжения
12. разрушение материала
13. развитие и распространение мелких трещин
14. сопротивление материалов ползучести и усталости
Exercise 3.2. Translate into English the following sentences:
1. Упругая деформация — это реакция всех материалов на внешние силы,
такие, как растяжение, сжатие, скручивание, изгиб и срез.
2. Усталость и ползучесть материалов являются результатом внешних сил.
3. Внешние силы вызывают постоянную деформацию и разрушение материала.
4. Растягивающие и сжимающие силы работают одновременно, когда мы
изгибаем или скручиваем материал.
5. Растяжение материала выше предела его упругости дает постоянную
деформацию или разрушение.
6. Когда деталь работает долгое время под циклическими напряжениями, в
ней появляются небольшие растущие трещины из-за усталости металла.
7. Ползучесть — это медленное изменение размера детали под напряжением.
Text В: «Mechanical Properties of Materials»
Density (specific weight) is the amount of mass in a unit volume. It is
measured in kilograms per cubic metre. The density of water is 1000 kg/
m3 but most materials have a higher density and sink in water. Aluminium
alloys, with typical densities around 2800 kg/ m3 are considerably less
dense than steels, which have typical densities around 7800 kg/ m3.
Density is important in any application where the material must not be
heavy.
Stiffness (rigidity) is a measure of the resistance to deformation such
as stretching or bending. The Young modulus is a measure of the
resistance to simple stretching or compression. It is the ratio of the
applied force per unit area (stress) to the fractional elastic
deformation (strain). Stiffness is important when a rigid structure is
to be made.
Strength is the force per unit area (stress) that a material can support
without failing. The units are the same as those of Stiffness, MN/m2,
but in this case the deformation is irreversible. The yield strength is
the stress at which a material first deforms plastically. For a metal
the yield strength may be less than the fracture strength, which is the
stress at which it breaks. Many materials have a higher strength in
compression than in tension.
Ductility is the ability of a material to deform without breaking. One
of the great advantages of metals is their ability to be formed into the
shape that is needed, such as car body parts. Materials that are not
ductile are brittle. Ductile materials can absorb energy by deformation
but brittle materials cannot.
Toughness is the resistance of a material to breaking when there is a
crack in it. For a material of given toughness, the stress at which it
will fail is inversely proportional to the square root of the size of
the largest defect present. Toughness is different from strength: the
toughest steels, for example, are different from the ones with highest
tensile strength. Brittle materials have low toughness: glass can be
broken along a chosen line by first scratching it with a diamond.
Composites can be designed to have considerably greater toughness than
their constituent materials. The example of a very tough composite is
fiberglass that is very flexible and strong.
Creep resistance is the resistance to a gradual permanent change of
shape, and it becomes especially important at higher temperatures. A
successful research has been made in materials for machine parts that
operate at high temperatures and under high tensile forces without
gradually extending, for example the parts of plane engines.
Vocabulary
ability — способность
amount — количество
absorb — поглощать
amount — количество
application — применение
brittle — хрупкий, ломкий
car body — кузов автомобиля
constituent — компонент
crack — трещина
creep resistance — устойчивость к ползучести
definition — определение
density — плотность
ductility — ковкость, эластичность
failure — повреждение
gradual — постепенный
permanent — постоянный
rigid — жесткий
to sink — тонуть
square root — квадратный корень
stiffness — жесткость
strain — нагрузка, напряжение, деформация
strength — прочность
stress — давление, напряжение
tensile strength — прочность на разрыв
toughness — прочность, стойкость
yield strength — прочность текучести
Young modulus — модуль Юнга
General understanding:
1. What is the density of a material?
2. What are the units of density? Where low density is needed?
3. What are the densities of water, aluminium and steel?
4. A measure of what properties is stiffness? When stiffness is
important?
5. What is Young modulus?
6. What is strength?
7. What is yield strength? Why fracture strength is always greater than
yield strength?
8. What is ductility? Give the examples of ductile materials. Give the
examples of brittle materials.
8. What is toughness?
9. What properties of steel are necessary for the manufacturing of: a)
springs, b) car body parts, c) bolts and nuts, d) cutting tools?
10. Where is aluminium mostly used because of its light weight?
Exercise 3.3. Find the following words and word combinations in the
text:
1. количество массы в единице объема
2. килограмм на кубический метр
3. мера сопротивления деформации
4. отношение приложенной силы на единицу площади к частичной упругой
деформации
5. жесткая конструкция
6. прочность на сжатие
7. способность материала деформироваться не разрушаясь
8. поглощать энергию путем деформации
9. обратно пропорционально квадрату размера дефекта
10. постепенное изменение формы
11. повышенные температуры
12. высокие растягивающие усилия
Exercise 3.4. Translate into English the following:
1. Плотность измеряется в килограммах на кубический метр.
2. Большинство материалов имеют более высокую плотность, чем вода и
тонут в воде.
3. Плотность материала очень важна, особенно в авиации.
4. Модуль Юнга — отношение приложенной силы к упругой деформации данного
материала.
5. Чем более металл жесткий, тем менее он деформируется под нагрузкой.
6. Когда металл растягивают, он сначала течет, то есть пластически
деформируется.
7. Свинец, медь, алюминий и золото — самые ковкие металлы.
8. Сопротивление ползучести является очень важным свойством материалов,
которые используются в авиационных моторах.
«FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING»
Sikorsky Igor Ivanovich was a well-known aircraft engineer and
manufacturer.
Sikorsky was born in 1889 in Kiev, in the Ukraine, and got his education
at the naval college in St. Petersburg, and later in Kiev and Paris. He
was the first to make experiments in helicopter design. In 1913 he
designed, built, and flew the first successful aeroplane. Later he built
military aircrafts for Russia and France.
In 1919 Sikorsky moved to the United States and later helped to organize
an aircraft company that produced a series of multiengine flying boats
for commercial service. Sikorsky became an American citizen in 1928. In
the late 1930s he returned to developing helicopters and produced the
first successful helicopter in the west. Helicopters designed by
Sikorsky were used mostly by the US Army Air Forces during World War II.
He died in 1972 at the age of 83.
Tupolev Andrey Nikolayevich, famous aircraft designer, was born in 1888.
He graduated from the Moscow Higher Technical School, where he designed
the first Russian wind tunnel. He helped to found the Central
Aerohydrodynamics Institute in 1918 and later worked as the head of its
design bureau. During his career he directed the design of more than 100
military and commercial aircraft, including the TU-2 and TU-4 bombers
used in the World War II. In 1955 he designed the TU-104, the first
passenger jet airliner. His TU-144 supersonic jet liner began its
commercial passenger flights in 1977.
UNIT 4
MACHINE-TOOLS
I. Text A: «Machine-tools», Text B: «Lathe»,
Text C: «Milling, boring, drilling machines. Shapers and Planers», Text
D: «Dies»
II. Famous people of science and technology: George Stephenson, Robert
Slephenson.
Text A: «MACHINE-TOOIS»
Machine-tools are used to shape metals and other materials. The material
to be shaped is called the workpiece. Most machine-tools are now
electrically driven. Machine-tools with electrical drive are faster and
more accurate than hand tools: they were an important element in the
development of mass-production processes, as they allowed individual
parts to be made in large numbers so as to be interchangeable.
All machine-tools have facilities for holding both the workpiece and the
tool, and for accurately controlling the movement of the cutting tool
relative to the workpiece. Most machining operations generate large
amounts of heat, and use cooling fluids (usually a mixture of water and
oils) for cooling and lubrication.
Machine-tools usually work materials mechanically but other machining
methods have been developed lately. They include chemical machining,
spark erosion to machine very hard materials to any shape by means of a
continuous high-voltage spark (discharge) between an electrode and a
workpiece. Other machining methods include drilling using ultrasound,
and cutting by means of a laser beam. Numerical control of machine-tools
and flexible manufacturing systems have made it possible for complete
systems of machine-tools to be used flexibly for the manufacture of a
range of products.
Vocabulary:
machine-tools — станки
electrically driven — с электроприводом
shape — форма
workpiece — деталь
accurate — точный
development — развитие
to allow — позволять, разрешать
interchangeable — взаимозаменяемый
facility — приспособление
relative —относительный
amount — количество
fluid — жидкость
to lubricate — смазывать
spark erosion — электроискровая обработка
discharge — разряд
by means of — посредством
beam — луч
drilling — сверление
flexible — гибкий
range — ассортимент, диапазон
Text B: «LATHE»
Lathe is still the most important machine-tool. It produces parts of
circular cross-section by turning the workpiece on its axis and cutting
its surface with a sharp stationary tool. The tool may be moved sideways
to produce a cylindrical part and moved towards the workpiece to control
the depth of cut. Nowadays all lathes are power-driven by electric
motors. That allows continuous rotation of the workpiece at a variety of
speeds. The modern lathe is driven by means of a headstock supporting a
hollow spindle on accurate bearings and carrying either a chuck or a
faceplate, to which the workpiece is clamped. The movement of the tool,
both along the lathe bed and at right angle to it, can be accurately
controlled, so enabling a part to be machined to close tolerances.
Modern lathes are often under numerical control.
Vocabulary:
lathe — токарный станок
circular cross-section — круглое поперечное сечение
surface — поверхность
stationary — неподвижный, стационарный
sideways — в сторону
variety — разнообразие, разновидность
depth — глубина
headstock — передняя бабка
spindle — шпиндель
chuck — зажим, патрон
faceplate — планшайба
lathe bed — станина станка
to enable — давать возможность
tolerance — допуск
General understanding:
1. What are machine-tools used for?
2. How are most machine-tools driven nowadays?
3. What facilities have all machine-tools?
4. How are the cutting tool and the workpiece cooled during machining?
5. What other machining methods have been developed lately?
6. What systems are used now for the manufacture of a range of products
without the use of manual labor?
7. What parts can be made with lathes?
8. How can the cutting tool be moved on a lathe?
9. How is the workpiece clamped in a lathe?
10. Can we change the speeds of workpiece rotation in a lathe?
11. What is numerical control of machine tools used for?
Exercise 4.1. Find English equivalents in the text:
1. обрабатываемый материал
2. электропривод
3. более точный
4. отдельные детали
5. процесс массового производства
6. приспособления для держания резца и детали
7. операции по механической обработке детали
8. высоковольтный разряд
9. сверление ультразвуком
10. резание с помощью лазерного луча
11. гибкие производственные системы
12. детали круглого сечения
13. поворачивать деталь вокруг ее оси
14. двигать в сторону, двигать по направлению к детали
15. глубина резания
16. непрерывное вращение детали
17. движение резца вдоль станины
Exercise 4.2. Translate into English:
1. Токарный станок позволяет производить детали круглого сечения.
2. Деталь зажимается в патроне или на планшайбе токарного станка.
3. Резец может двигаться как вдоль станины, так и под прямым углом к
ней.
4. Современные токарные станки часто имеют цифровое управление.
Text С: «MILLING MACHINE»
In a milling machine the cutter (фреза) is a circular device with a
series of cutting edges on its circumference. The workpiece is held on a
table that controls the feed against the cutter. The table has three
possible movements: longitudinal, horizontal, and vertical; in some
cases it can also rotate. Milling machines are the most versatile of all
machine tools. Flat or contoured surfaces may be machined with excellent
finish and accuracy. Angles, slots, gear teeth and cuts can be made by
using various shapes of cutters.
Drilling and Boring Machines
To drill a hole usually hole-making machine-tools are used. They can
drill a hole according to some specification, they can enlarge it, or
they can cut threads for a screw or to create an accurate size or a
smooth finish of a hole.
Drilling machines (сверлильные станки) are different in size and
function, from portable drills to radial drilling machines, multispindle
units, automatic production machines, and deep-hole-drilling machines.
Boring (расточка) is a process that enlarges holes previously drilled,
usually with a rotating single-point cutter held on a boring bar and fed
against a stationary workpiece.
Shapers and Planers
The shaper (поперечно-строгальный станок) is used mainly to produce
different flat surfaces. The tool slides against the stationary
workpiece and cuts on one stroke, returns to its starting position, and
then cuts on the next stroke after a slight lateral displacement. In
general, the shaper can make any surface having straight-line elements.
It uses only one cutting-tool and is relatively slow, because the return
stroke is idle. That is why the shaper is seldom found on a mass
production line. It is, however, valuable for tool production and for
workshops where flexibility is important and relative slowness is
unimportant.
The planer (продольно-строгальный станок) is the largest of the
reciprocating machine tools. It differs from the shaper, which moves a
tool past a fixed workpiece because the planer moves the workpiece to
expose a new section to the tool. Like the shaper, the planer is
intended to produce vertical, horizontal, or diagonal cuts. It is also
possible to mount several tools at one time in any or all tool holders
of a planer to execute multiple simultaneous cuts.
Grinders
Grinders (шлифовальные станки) remove metal by a rotating abrasive
wheel. The wheel is composed of many small grains of abrasive, bonded
together, with each grain acting as a miniature cutting tool. The
process gives very smooth and accurate finishes. Only a small amount of
material is removed at each pass of the wheel, so grinding machines
require fine wheel regulation. The pressure of the wheel against the
workpiece is usually very light, so that grinding can be carried out on
fragile materials that cannot be machined by other conventional devices.
Vocabulary:
milling machine — фрезерный станок
series — серия, ряд
cutting edge — режущий край, острие
circumference — окружность
to feed — подавать
longitudinal— продольный
horizontal — горизонтальный
vertical — вертикальный
versatile — универсальный
flat — плоский
contoured — контурный
angle — угол
slot — прорезь, паз
gear teeth — зубья шестерни
drill — дрель, сверло, сверлить
hole — отверстие
to enlarge — увеличивать
thread — резьба
portable — портативный
unit — единица, целое, узел
previously — ранее
to slide — скользить
stroke — ход
lateral — боковой
displacement — смещение
straight — прямой
idle — на холостом ходу
workshop — цех, мастерская
to mount — крепить
holder — держатель
to execute — выполнять
simultaneous — одновременный
multiple — многочисленный
grinder — шлифовальный станок
wheel — круг, колесо
bonded — скрепленный
to remove — удалять
pass — проход
fine — точный
conventional — обычный
device — устройство, прибор
fragile — хрупкий
General understanding:
1. What is the shape of a cutter in a milling machine?
2. What moves in a milling machine, a table or a cutter?
3. What possible movements has the table of a milling machine?
4. What kind of surfaces and shapes may be machined by a milling
machine?
5. What can we use a drilling machine for?
6. What kinds of drilling machines exist?
7. What is rotated while boring, a cutter or a work-piece?
8. Describe the work of a shaper (planer).
9. What must be done to execute multiple simultaneous cuts on a planer?
10. What is the working tool in a grinder?
11. Can we obtain a very smooth surface after grinding and why? 12. Can
we grind fragile materials and why?
Exercise 4.3. Translate into English:
1. Токарный станок все еще остается самым важным станком.
2. Все современные токарные станки оборудованы электроприводами.
3. Движение инструмента контролируется с высокой точностью.
4. Электропривод позволяет обрабатывать заготовку на различных
скоростях.
Text D: «DIES»
Dies are tools used for the shaping solid materials, especially those
employed in the pressworking of cold metals.
In presswork, dies are used in pairs. The smaller die, or punch, fits
inside the larger die, called the matrix or, simply, the die. The metal
to be formed, usually a sheet, is placed over the matrix on the press.
The punch is mounted on the press and moves down by hydraulic or
mechanical force.
A number of different forms of dies are employed for different
operations. The simplest are piercing dies (пробивной штамп), used for
punching holes. Bending and folding dies are designed to make single or
compound bends. A combination die is designed to perform more than one
of the above operations in one stroke of the press. A progressive die
permits successive forming operations with the same die.
In coining, metal is forced to flow into two matching dies, each of
which bears a engraved design.
Wiredrawing Dies
In the manufacture of wire, a drawplate (волочильная доска) is usually
employed. This tool is a metal plate containing a number of holes,
successively less in diameter and known as wire dies. A piece of metal
is pulled through the largest die to make a coarse wire. This wire is
then drawn through the smaller hole, and then the next, until the wire
is reduced to the desired measurement. Wiredrawing dies are made from
extremely hard materials, such as tungsten carbide or diamonds.
Thread-Cutting Dies
For cutting threads on bolts or on the outside of pipes, a
thread-cutting die (резьбонарезная плашка) is used. It is usually made
of hardened steel in the form of a round plate with a hole in the
centre. The hole has a thread. To cut an outside thread, the die is
lubricated with oil and simply screwed onto an unthreaded bolt or piece
of pipe, the same way a nut is screwed onto a bolt. The corresponding
tool for cutting an inside thread, such as that inside a nut, is called
a tap (метчик).
Vocabulary:
chip — стружка
sharp — острый
friction — трение
content — содержание
range — диапазон
inexpensive — недорогой
to permit — позволять, разрешать
common — обычный
tungsten — вольфрам
ingredient — ингредиент
diamond — алмаз
tips — наконечники
ceramic — керамический
truing — правка, наводка, заточка
die — матрица, штамп
matrix — матрица
to employ — применять
to pierce — протыкать, прокалывать
to punch — пробивать отверстие
matching — сочетающийся, парный
coarse — грубый
wire — проволока
to draw — тащить, волочить
thread — резьба
hardened — закаленный
to lubricate — смазывать
to screw — привинчивать
nut — гайка
outside — наружный, внешний
inside — внутри, внутренний
Exercise 4.4. Find English equivalents in the text:
1. удалять металлическую стружку
2. острый режущий край
3. содержание углерода
4. режущая способность
5. сталь для скоростного резания
6. правка шлифовальных кругов
7. гидравлическое или механическое давление
8. различные формы штампов
Exercise 4.5. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. Все резцы и фрезы должны иметь острую режущую кромку.
2. Во время резания режущий инструмент и деталь имеют высокую
температуру и должны охлаждаться.
3. Углеродистые стали часто используются для изготовления резцов потому,
что они недорогие.
4. Быстрорежущие стали содержат вольфрам, хром и ванадий.
5. Алмазы используются для резания абразивных материалов и чистовой
обработки поверхности твердых материалов.
6. Для различных операций используют различные штампы.
7. Волочильные доски для проволоки делаются из очень твердых материалов.
8. Резьбонарезные плашки и метчики используются для нарезки резьбы
снаружи и внутри.
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
George Stephenson
George Stephenson was a British inventor and engineer. He is famous for
building the first practical railway locomotive.
Stephenson was born in 1781 in Wylam, near Newcastle upon Tyne,
Northumberland. During his youth he worked as a fireman and later as an
engineer in the coal mines of Newcastle. He invented one of the first
miner’s safety lamps independently of the British inventor Humphry Davy.
Stephenson’s early locomotives were used to carry loads in coal mines,
and in 1823 he established a factory at Newcastle for their manufacture.
In 1829 he designed a locomotive known as the Rocket, which could carry
both loads and passengers at a greater speed than any locomotive
constructed at that time. The success of the Rocket was the beginning of
the construction of locomotives and the laying of railway lines.
Robert Stephenson, the son of George Stephenson was a British civil
engineer. He is mostly well-known known for the construction of several
notable bridges.
He was born in 1803 in Willington Quay, near Newcastle upon Tyne, and
educated in Newcastle and at the University of Edinburgh. In 1829 he
assisted his father in constructing a locomotive known as the Rocket,
and four years later he was appointed construction engineer of the
Birmingham and London Railway, completed in 1838. Stephenson built
several famous bridges, including the Victoria Bridge in Northumberland,
the Britannia Bridge in Wales, two bridges across the Nile in Damietta
in Egypt and the Victoria Bridge in Montreal, Canada. Stephenson was a
Member of Parliament from 1847 until his death in 1859.
UNIT 5
PLASTICS
I. Text A: «Plastics», Text B: «Types of plastics», Text C: «Composite
Materials»
II. Famous People of Science: Alfred Bernhard Nobel.
Text A: «PLASTICS»
Plastics are non-metallic, synthetic, carbon-based materials. They can
be moulded, shaped, or extruded into flexible sheets, films, or fibres.
Plastics are synthetic polymers. Polymers consist of long-chain
molecules made of large numbers of identical small molecules (monomers).
The chemical nature of a plastic is defined by the monomer (repeating
unit) that makes up the chain of the polymer. Polyethene is a
polyolefin; its monomer unit is ethene (formerly called ethylene). Other
categories are acrylics (such as polymethylmethacrylate), styrenes (such
as polystyrene), vinys (such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)), polyesters,
polyurethanes, polyamides (such as nylons), polyethers, acetals,
phenolics, cellulosics, and amino resins. The molecules can be either
natural — like cellulose, wax, and natural rubber — or synthetic — in
polyethene and nylon. In co-polymers, more than one monomer is used.
The giant molecules of which polymers consist may be linear, branched,
or cross-linked, depending on the plastic. Linear and branched molecules
are thermoplastic (soften when heated), whereas cross-linked molecules
are thermosetting (harden when heated).
Most plastics are synthesized from organic chemicals or from natural gas
or coal. Plastics are light-weight compared to metals and are good
electrical insulators. The best insulators now are epoxy resins and
teflon. Teflon or polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) was first made in 1938
and was produced commercially in 1950.
Plastics can be classified into several broad types.
1. Thermoplastics soften on heating, then harden again when cooled.
Thermoplastic molecules are also coiled and because of this they are
flexible and easily stretched.
Typical example of thermoplastics is polystyrene. Polystyrene resins are
characterized by high resistance to chemical and mechanical stresses at
low temperatures and by very low absorption of water. These properties
make the polystyrenes especially suitable for radio-frequency insulation
and for parts used at low temperatures in refrigerators and in
airplanes. PET (polyethene terephthalate) is a transparent thermoplastic
used for soft-drinks bottles. Thermoplastics are also viscoelastic, that
is, they flow (creep) under stress. Examples are polythene, polystyrene
and PVC.
2. Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) do not soften when heated, and
with strong heating they decompose. In most thermosets final
cross-linking, which fixes the molecules, takes place after the plastic
has already been formed.
Thermosetting plastics have a higher density than thermoplastics. They
are less flexible, more difficult to stretch, and are less subjected to
creep. Examples of thermosetting plastics include urea-formaldehyde or
polyurethane and epoxy resins, most polyesters, and phenolic polymers
such as phenol-formaldehyde resin.
3. Elastomers are similar to thermoplastics but have sufficient
cross-linking between molecules to prevent stretching and creep.
Vocabulary:
carbon — углерод
flexible — гибкий
fibre — волокно, нить
chain — цепь
identical — одинаковый, идентичный
molecule — молекула
branch — разветвленный
to synthesize — синтезировать
chemicals — химические вещества
to soften — смягчать
cellulose — клетчатка, целлюлоза
wax — воск
thermosetting plastics — термореактивные пластмассы
to harden — делать твердым
coil — спираль
stretched — растянутый
transparent — прозрачный
rubber — резина, каучук
to decompose — разлагаться
soft-drink — безалкогольный напиток
to subject — подвергать
polyurethane — полиуретан
resin — смола
similar — сходный, подобный
sufficient — достаточный
to prevent — предотвращать
General understanding
1. What is the definition of plastics?
2. What is the basic chemical element in plastics formula?
3. What do polymers consist of?
4. What are long-chain molecules made of?
5. What are the main types of polymers?
6. Give examples of plastics belonging to these types.
7. What plastics are the best electrical insulators?
8. Describe the difference between thermoplastics and thermosets.
9. What are the main types of structures of polymers?
10. What are the most important properties of plastics?
11. Give the examples of various uses of plastics because of their
characteristic properties.
Exercise 5.1. Find English equivalents in the text:
1. синтетические полимеры
2. молекулы с длинными цепями
3. характерные свойства полимера
4. синтезируются из органических химических веществ
5. хороший электрический изолятор
6. размягчаться при нагревании
7. затвердевать при охлаждении
8. гибкий и легко растяжимый
9. течь под нагрузкой
10. более высокая плотность
11. менее подвержены ползучести
12. достаточная взаимосвязь между молекулами
Exercise 5.2. Translate into English:
1. Длинные цепи молекул полимеров состоят из одинаковых небольших
молекул мономеров.
2. Сополимеры состоят из двух и более мономеров.
3. Пластмассы можно получать в виде листов, тонких пленок, волокон или
гранул.
4. Молекулы полимеров могут быть линейными, ветвящимися или с
поперечными связями.
5. Малый вес пластмасс и хорошие электроизоляционные свойства позволяют
использовать их в радиоэлектронике и электроприборах, а также вместо
металлов.
6. Молекулы термопластов имеют извитую форму и, поэтому, они гибкие и
легко растяжимы.
7. Эластомеры имеют большое число поперечных связей между молекулами.
Text В: «TYPES OF PLASTICS»
1. Epoxy resin.
Epoxy resin is a thermoset plastic containing epoxy groups. Epoxy resin
hardens when it is mixed with solidifier and plasticizer. Plasticizers
make a polymer more flexible.
Epoxy resins have outstanding adhesion, toughness, and resistance to
attack from chemicals. They form strong bonds and have excellent
electrical insulation properties. Large, complex, void-free castings can
be made from them. They are also used as adhesives, and in composites
for boat building and sports equipment.
2. PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is a thermoplastic polymer made from vinyl
chloride is a colourless solid with outstanding resistance to water,
alcohols, and concentrated acids and alkalis. It is obtainable as
granules, solutions, lattices, and pastes. When compounded with
plasticizers, it yields a flexible material more durable than rubber. It
is widely used for cable and wire insulation, in chemical plants, and in
the manufacture of protective garments. Blow moulding of unplasticized
PVC produces clear, tough bottles which do not affect the flavour of
their contents. PVC is also used for production of tubes or pipes.
3. Polystyrene.
Polystyrene is a thermoplastic produced by the polymerization of
styrene. The electrical insulating properties of polystyrene are
outstandingly good and it is relatively unaffected by water. Typical
applications include light fixtures, toys, bottles, lenses, capacitor
dielectrics, medical syringes, and light-duty industrial components.
Extruded sheets of polystyrene are widely used for packaging, envelope
windows, and photographic film. Its resistance to impact can be improved
by the addition of rubber modifiers. Polystyrene can be readily foamed;
the resulting foamed polystyrene is used extensively for packaging.
4. Polythene (polyethene, polyethylene)
Polythene (polyethene, polyethylene) is a plastic made from ethane. It
is one of the most widely used important thermoplastic polymers. It was
first developed by the polymerization of ethane at a pressure of 2,000
bar at 200°C. This produced low-density polythene (LDPE). A relatively
high-density form (HDPE) was synthesized in the 1950s using a complex
catalyst. Polythene is a white waxy solid with very low density,
reasonable strength and toughness, but low stiffness. It is easily
moulded and has a wide range of uses in containers, packaging, pipes,
coatings, and insulation.
Vocabulary:
adhesion — прилипание
adhesive — клей
bond — связи, узы
insulation — изоляция
casting — литье
void — пустота
solid — твердое тело, твердый
acid — кислота
alkali — щелочь
to obtain — доставать, получать
granule — гранула
solution — раствор
lattices — латексы
paste — паста
yield — выход
durable — прочный
rubber — резина, каучук
garment — предметы одежды
lens —линза
capacitor — эл. конденсатор
syringe — шприц
light-duty — неответственный
envelope — зд. обрамление
impact — удар
improved — улучшенный
modifiers — модификаторы
addition — добавление
readily — легко, с готовностью
foam — пена
catalyst — катализатор
wax — воск
reasonable — приемлемый, неплохой
coating — слой, покрытие
General understanding:
1. What are the types of plastics?
2. What are the features of the epoxy resin?
3. What is epoxy resin used for?
4. What is PVC usually used for?
5. What are the typical applications of polystyrene?
6. When was polyethylen synthesized?
7. Under what conditions is polyethylen synthesized?
8. What sorts of polyethylen can be synthesized?
Exercise 5.3. Translate into Russian:
1. Polythene is a plastic made from ethane.
2. Epoxy resins have outstanding adhesion, toughness and resistance to
attack from chemicals.
3. PVC is a colourless solid with outstanding resistance to water,
alcohols, and concentrated acids and alkalis.
4. Polystyrene is a thermoplastic produced by the polymerization of
styrene.
5. Polythene is a white waxy solid with very low density, reasonable
strength and toughness but low stiffness.
Exercise 5.4. Translate into English:
1. Эпоксидная смола затвердевает когда смешивается с отвердителем и
пластификатором.
2. Эпоксидные смолы используются в качестве клея, а с добавками — в
строительстве лодок и спортивного снаряжения.
3. ПВХ — бесцветное твердое вещество с выдающейся устойчивостью к
воздействию воды, спиртов, концентрированных кислот и щелочей.
4. ПВХ широко используется при производстве изоляции для проводов.
5. Выдувка непластифицированного ПВХ используется при производстве
прозрачных бутылок для напитков.
6. Полистирол легко вспенивается и используется для упаковки.
7. Полиэтилен — воскообразное вещество белого цвета с очень низкой
плотностью и малой жесткостью.
Text С: «COMPOSITE MATERIALS»
The combinations of two or more different materials are called composite
materials. They usually have unique mechanical and physical properties
because they combine the best properties of different materials. For
example, a fibre-glass reinforced plastic combines the high strength of
thin glass fibres with the ductility and chemical resistance of plastic.
Nowadays composites are being used for structures such as bridges,
boat-building etc.
Composite materials usually consist of synthetic fibres within a matrix,
a material that surrounds and is tightly bound to the fibres. The most
widely used type of composite material is polymer matrix composites
(PMCs). PMCs consist of fibres made of a ceramic material such as carbon
or glass embedded in a plastic matrix. Usually the fibres make up about
60 per cent by volume. Composites with metal matrices or ceramic
matrices are called metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs), respectively.
Continuous-fibre composites are generally required for structural
applications. The specific strength (strength-to-density ratio) and
specific stiffness (elastic modulus-to-density ratio) of continuous
carbon fibre PMCs, for example, can be better than metal alloys have.
Composites can also have other attractive properties, such as high
thermal or electrical conductivity and a low coefficient of thermal
expansion.
Although composite materials have certain advantages over conventional
materials, composites also have some disadvantages. For example, PMCs
and other composite materials tend to be highly anisotropic — that is,
their strength, stiffness, and other engineering properties are
different depending on the orientation of the composite material. For
example, if a PMC is fabricated so that all the fibres are lined up
parallel to one another, then the PMC will be very stiff in the
direction parallel to the fibres, but not stiff in the perpendicular
direction. The designer who uses composite materials in structures
subjected to multidirectional forces, must take these anisotropic
properties into account. Also, forming strong connections between
separate composite material components is difficult.
The advanced composites have high manufacturing costs. Fabricating
composite materials is a complex process. However, new manufacturing
techniques are developed. It will become possible to produce composite
materials at higher volumes and at a lower cost than is now possible,
accelerating the wider exploitation of these materials.
Vocabulary:
fibreglass — стекловолокно
fibre — волокно, нить
reinforced — упрочненный
expansion — расширение
matrix — матрица
ceramic — керамический
specific strength — удельная прочность
specific stiffness — удельная жесткость
anisotropic — анизотропный
General understanding:
1. What is called «composite materials»?
2. What are the best properties of fibre-glass?
3. What do composite material usually consist of?
4. What is used as matrix in composites?
5. What is used as filler or fibers in composites?
6. How are the composite materials with ceramic and metal matrices
called?
7. What are the advantages of composites?
8. What are the disadvantages of composites?
9. Why anisotropic properties of composites should be taken into
account?
Exercise 5.5. Find equivalents in the text:
1. композитные материалы
2. уникальные механические качества
3. полимерные матричные композиты
4. составлять 60% объема
5. углепластик
6. привлекательные качества
7. структура, подвергающаяся воздействию разнонаправленных сил
Exercise 5.6. Translate into Russian:
1. PMC is fabricated so that all the fibres are lined up parallel to one
another.
2. Forming strong connections between separate composite material
components is difficult.
3. Fabricating composite materials is a complex process.
4. Composite materials have certain advantages over conventional
materials
5. Nowadays, composites are being used for structures such as bridges,
boat-building etc.
6. Continuous-fibre composites are generally required for structural
applications.
FAMOUS INVENTORS
Alfred Bernhard Nobel was a famous Swedish chemist and inventor. He was
born in Stockholm in 1833. After receiving an education in St.
Petersburg, Russia, and then in the United States, where he studied
mechanical engineering, he returned to St. Petersburg to work with his
father in Russia. They were developing mines, torpedoes, and other
explosives.
In a family-owned factory in Heleneborg, Sweden, he developed a safe way
to handle nitroglycerine, after a factory explosion in 1864 killed his
younger brother and four other people. In 1867 Nobel achieved his goal:
he produced what he called dynamite динамит. Не later produced one of
the first smokeless powders (порох). At the time of his death he
controlled factories for the manufacture of explosives (взрывчатое
вещество) in many parts of the world. In his will he wanted that the
major portion of his money left became a fund for yearly prizes in his
name. The prizes were to be given for merits (заслуги) in physics,
chemistry, medicine and physiology, literature, and world peace. A prize
in economics has been awarded since 1969.
UNIT 6
WELDING
I. Text A: «Welding», Text В: «Other types of welding»
II. Famous People of Science and Technology: James Prescott Joule.
Text A: «WELDING»
Welding is a process when metal parts are joined together by the
application of heat, pressure, or a combination of both. The processes
of welding can be divided into two main groups:
• pressure welding, when the weld is achieved by pressure and
• heat welding, when the weld is achieved by heat. Heat welding is the
most common welding process used today.
Nowadays welding is used instead of bolting and riveting in the
construction of many types of structures, including bridges, buildings,
and ships. It is also a basic process in the manufacture of machinery
and in the motor and aircraft industries. It is necessary almost in all
productions where metals are used.
The welding process depends greatly on the properties of the metals, the
purpose of their application and the available equipment. Welding
processes are classified according to the sources of heat and pressure
used.
The welding processes widely employed today include gas welding, arc
welding, and resistance welding. Other joining processes are laser
welding, and electron-beam welding.
Gas Welding
Gas welding is a non-pressure process using heat from a gas flame. The
flame is applied directly to the metal edges to be joined and
simultaneously to a filler metal in the form of wire or rod, called the
welding rod, which is melted to the joint. Gas welding has the advantage
of using equipment that is portable and does not require an electric
power source. The surfaces to be welded and the welding rod are coated
with flux, a fusible material that shields the material from air, which
would result in a defective weld.
Arc Welding
Arc-welding is the most important welding process for joining steels. It
requires a continuous supply of either direct or alternating electrical
current. This current is used to create an electric arc, which generates
enough heat to melt metal and create a weld.
Arc welding has several advantages over other welding methods. Arc
welding is faster because the concentration of heat is high. Also,
fluxes are not necessary in certain methods of arc welding. The most
widely used arc-welding processes are shielded metal arc, gas-tungsten
arc, gas-metal arc, and submerged arc.
Shielded Metal Arc
In shielded metal-arc welding, a metallic electrode, which conducts
electricity, is coated with flux and connected to a source of electric
current. The metal to be welded is connected to the other end of the
same source of current. An electric arc is formed by touching the tip of
the electrode to the metal and then drawing it away. The intense heat of
the arc melts both parts to be welded and the point of the metal
electrode, which supplies filler metal for the weld. This process is
used mainly for welding steels.
Vocabulary:
to join — соединять
pressure welding — сварка давлением
heat welding — сварка нагреванием
instead — вместо, взамен
bolting — скрепление болтами
riveting — клепка
basic — основной
to manufacture — изготовлять
to depend — зависеть от
purpose — цель
available — имеющийся в наличии
equipment — оборудование
source — источник
gas welding — газосварка
arc welding — электродуговая сварка
resistance welding — контактная сварка
laser welding — лазерная сварка
electron-beam welding — электронно-лучевая сварка
flame — пламя
edge — край
simultaneously — одновременно
filler — наполнитель
wire — проволока
rod — прут, стержень
to melt — плавить(ся)
joint — соединение, стык
advantage — преимущество
to require — требовать нуждаться
surface — поверхность
coated — покрытый
flux — флюс
fusible — плавкий
to shield — заслонять, защищать
touching — касание
tip — кончик
General understanding:
1. How can a process of welding be defined?
2. What are the two main groups of processes of welding?
3. How can we join metal parts together?
4. What is welding used for nowadays?
5. Where is welding necessary?
6. What do the welding processes of today include?
7. What are the principles of gas welding?
8. What kinds of welding can be used for joining steels?
9. What does arc welding require? 10. What is the difference between the
arc welding and shielded-metal welding?
Exercise 6.1. Find the following words and word combinations in the
text:
1. сварка давлением
2. тепловая сварка
3. болтовое (клепаное) соединение
4. процесс сварки
5. зависеть от свойств металлов
6. имеющееся оборудование
7. сварочный электрод
8. плавкий материал
9. дефектный сварной шов
10. непрерывная подача электрического тока
11. электрическая дуга
12. источник электрического тока
Text В: «OTHER TYPES OF WELDING»
Non-consumable Electrode Arc welding
As a non-consumable electrodes tungsten or carbon electrodes can be
used. In gas-tungsten arc welding a tungsten electrode is used in place
of the metal electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding. A chemically
inert gas, such as argon, helium, or carbon dioxide is used to shield
the metal from oxidation. The heat from the arc formed between the
electrode and the metal melts the edges of the metal. Metal for the weld
may be added by placing a bare wire in the arc or the point of the weld.
This process can be used with nearly all metals and produces a
high-quality weld. However, the rate of welding is considerably slower
than in other processes.
Gas-Metal Arc
In gas-metal welding, a bare electrode is shielded from the air by
surrounding it with argon or carbon dioxide gas and sometimes by coating
the electrode with flux. The electrode is fed into the electric arc, and
melts off in droplets that enter the liquid metal of the weld seam. Most
metals can be joined by this process.
Submerged Arc
Submerged-arc welding is similar to gas-metal arc welding, but in this
process no gas is used to shield the weld. Instead of that, the arc and
tip of the wire are submerged beneath a layer of granular, fusible
material that covers the weld seam. This process is also called
electroslag welding. It is very efficient but can be used only with
steels.
Resistance Welding
In resistance welding, heat is obtained from the resistance of metal to
the flow of an electric current. Electrodes are clamped on each side of
the parts to be welded, the parts are subjected to great pressure, and a
heavy current is applied for a short period of time. The point where the
two metals touch creates resistance to the flow of current. This
resistance causes heat, which melts the metals and creates the weld.
Resistance welding is widely employed in many fields of sheet metal or
wire manufacturing and is often used for welds made by automatic or
semi-automatic machines especially in automobile industry.
Vocabulary
gas-tungsten — сварка оплавлением вольфрамовым электродом в среде
инертного газа
inert — инертный
edge — край
bare — голый
rate — зд. скорость
gas-metal arc — аргонодуговая сварка
considerably — значительно, гораздо
surrounding — окружающий
carbon dioxide — углекислый газ
droplet — капелька
liquid — жидкость, жидкий
beneath — под, ниже, внизу
layer — слой
weld seam — сварной шов
resistance — сопротивление
clamp — зажим, зажимать
sheet — лист
fusible — плавкий
granular — плавкий
semi-automatic — полуавтоматическая
to create — создавать
to submerge — погружать
General understanding:
1. What is the difference between the arc-welding and non-consumable
electrode arc welding?
2. What are the disadvantages of the non-consumable electrode arc
welding?
3. How is electrode protected from the air in gas-metal arc welding?
4. What is submerged arc welding?
5. What is the principle of resistance welding?
6. Where is semi-automatic welding employed?
Exercise 6.2. Translate into English:
1. вольфрамовый электрод
2. инертный газ
3. окисление
4. высококачественный сварочный шов
5. скорость сварки
6. аргон, гелий, углекислый газ
7. жидкий металл
8. слой плавкого материала в виде гранул
9. листовой металл
10. полувтоматические сварочные станки
Exercise 6.3. Translate into Russian:
1. In resistance welding, heat is obtained from the resistance of metal
to the flow of an electric current.
2. The heat from the arc melts the edges of the metal.
3. A bare electrode is shielded from the air by surrounding it with
argon or carbon dioxide gas.
4. Submerged-arc welding is similar to gas-metal arc welding.
5. Electrodes are clamped on each side of the parts to be welded.
6. Resistance causes heat which melts the metals and creates the weld.
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
James Prescott Joule, famous British physicist, was born in 1818 in
Salford, England.
Joule was one of the most outstanding physicists of his time. He is best
known for his research in electricity and thermodynamics. In the course
of his investigations of the heat emitted in an electrical circuit, he
formulated the law, now known as Joule’s law of electric heating. This
law states that the amount of heat produced each second in a conductor
by electric current is proportional to the resistance of the conductor
and to the square of the current. Joule experimentally verified the law
of conservation of energy in his study of the conversion of mechanical
energy into heat energy.
Joule determined the numerical relation between heat and mechanical
energy, or the mechanical equivalent of heat, using many independent
methods. The unit of energy, called the joule, is named after him. It is
equal to 1 watt-second. Together with the physicist William Thomson
(Baron Kelvin), Joule found that the temperature of a gas falls when it
expands without doing any work. This phenomenon, which became known as
the Joule-Thomson effect, lies in the operation of modern refrigeration
and air-conditioning systems.
UNIT 7
AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS
I. Text A: «Automation», Text B: «Types of automation»,
Text C: «Robots In manufacturing»
II. Famous people of science and technology: James Watt.
Text A: «AUTOMATION»
Automation is the system of manufacture performing certain tasks,
previously done by people, by machines only. The sequences of operations
are controlled automatically. The most familiar example of a highly
automated system is an assembly plant for automobiles or other complex
products.
The term automation is also used to describe non-manufacturing systems
in which automatic devices can operate independently of human control.
Such devices as automatic pilots, automatic telephone equipment and
automated control systems are used to perform various operations much
faster and better than could be done by people.
Automated manufacturing had several steps in its development.
Mechanization was the first step necessary in the development of
automation. The simplification of work made it possible to design and
build machines that resembled the motions of the worker. These
specialized machines were motorized and they had better production
efficiency.
Industrial robots, originally designed only to perform simple tasks in
environments dangerous to human workers, are now widely used to
transfer, manipulate, and position both light and heavy workpieces
performing all the functions of a transfer machine.
In the 1920s the automobile industry for the first time used an
integrated system of production. This method of production was adopted
by most car manufacturers and became known as Detroit automation.
The feedback principle is used in all automatic-control mechanisms when
machines have ability to correct themselves. The feedback principle has
been used for centuries. An outstanding early example is the flyball
governor, invented in 1788 by James Watt to control the speed of the
steam engine. The common household thermostat is another example of a
feedback device.
Using feedback devices, machines can start, stop, speed up, slow down,
count, inspect, test, compare, and measure. These operations are
commonly applied to a wide variety of production operations.
Computers have greatly facilitated the use of feedback in manufacturing
processes. Computers gave rise to the development of numerically
controlled machines. The motions of these machines are controlled by
punched paper or magnetic tapes. In numerically controlled machining
centres machine tools can perform several different machining
operations.
More recently, the introduction of microprocessors and computers have
made possible the development of computer-aided design and
computer-aided manufacture (CAD and CAM) technologies. When using these
systems a designer draws a part and indicates its dimensions with the
help of a mouse, light pen, or other input device. After the drawing has
been completed the computer automatically gives the instructions that
direct a machining centre to machine the part.
Another development using automation are the flexible manufacturing
systems (FMS). A computer in FMS can be used to monitor and control the
operation of the whole factory.
Automation has also had an influence on the areas of the economy other
than manufacturing. Small computers are used in systems called word
processors, which are rapidly becoming a standard part of the modern
office. They are used to edit texts, to type letters and so on.
Automation in Industry
Many industries are highly automated or use automation technology in
some part of their operation. In communications and especially in the
telephone industry dialing and transmission are all done automatically.
Railways are also controlled by automatic signaling devices, which have
sensors that detect carriages passing a particular point. In this way
the movement and location of trains can be monitored.
Not all industries require the same degree of automation. Sales,
agriculture, and some service industries are difficult to automate,
though agriculture industry may become more mechanized, especially in
the processing and packaging of foods.
The automation technology in manufacturing and assembly is widely used
in car and other consumer product industries.
Nevertheless, each industry has its own concept of automation that
answers its particular production needs.
Vocabulary:
automation — автоматизация
previously — ранее
sequence — последовательность
assembly plant — сборочный завод
non-manufacturing — непроизводственный
device — устройство, прибор
resemble — походить
efficiency — эффективность
flyball governor — центробежный регулятор
steam engine — паровоз
household thermostat — бытовой термостат
facilitate — способствовать
punched — перфорированный
aid — помощь
dimension — измерение, размеры
General understanding:
1. How is the term automation defined in the text?
2. What is the most «familiar example» of automation given in the text?
3. What was the first step in the development of automaton?
4. What were the first robots originally designed for?
5. What was the first industry to adopt the new integrated system of
production?
6. What is feedback principle?
7. What do the abbreviations CAM and CAD stand for?
8. What is FMS?
9. What industries use automation technologies?
Exercise 7.1. Find the following words and word combinations in the
text:
1. автоматические устройства
2. автоматизированное производство
3. выполнять простые задачи
4. как легкие, так и тяжелые детали
5. интегрированная система производства
6. принцип обратной связи
7. механизм может разгоняться и тормозить
8. компьютер автоматически посылает команды
9. высокоавтоматизированная система
10. непроизводственная система
Text В: «TYPES OF AUTOMATION»
Applications of Automation and Robotics in Industry
Manufacturing is one of the most important application area for
automation technology. There are several types of automation in
manufacturing. The examples of automated systems used in manufacturing
are described below.
1. Fixed automation, sometimes called «hard automation» refers to
automated machines in which the equipment configuration allows fixed
sequence of processing operations. These machines are programmed by
their design to make only certain processing operations. They are not
easily changed over from one product style to another. This form of
automation needs high initial investments and high production rates.
That is why it is suitable for products that are made in large volumes.
Examples of fixed automation are machining transfer lines found in the
automobile industry, automatic assembly machines and certain chemical
processes.
2. Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing
products in large quantities, ranging from several dozen to several
thousand units at a time. For each new product the production equipment
must be reprogrammed and changed over. This reprogramming and changeover
take a period of non-productive time. Production rates in programmable
automation are generally lower than in fixed automation, because the
equipment is designed to facilitate product changeover rather than for
product specialization. A numerical-control machine-tool is a good
example of programmable automation. The program is coded in computer
memory for each different product style and the machine-tool is
controlled by the computer programme.
3. Flexible automation is a kind of programmable automation.
Programmable automation requires time to re-program and change over the
production equipment for each series of new product. This is lost
production time, which is expensive. In flexible automation the number
of products is limited so that the changeover of the equipment can be
done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment
in flexible automation is done at a computer terminal without using the
production equipment itself. Flexible automation allows a mixture of
different products to be produced one right after another.
Vocabulary
equipment — оборудование
sequence — последовательность
initial — первоначальный, начальный
investment — инвестиция, вклад
to facilitate — способствовать
rate — скорость, темп
assembly machines — сборочные машины
quantity — количество
non-productive — непроизводительный
changeover — переход, переналадка
General understanding:
1. What is the most important application of automation?
2. What are the types of automation used in manufacturing?
3. What is fixed automation?
4. What are the limitations of hard automation?
5. What is the best example of programmable automation?
6. What are the limitations of programmable automation?
7. What are the advantages of flexible automation?
8. Is it possible to produce different products one after another using
automation technology?
Exercise 7.2. Find equivalents in English in the text:
1. сфера применения
2. фиксированная последовательность операций
3. автоматические сборочные машины
4. определенные химические процессы
5. станок с числовым программным управлением
6. потерянное производственное время
7. разнообразная продукция
Exercise 7.3. Explain in English what does the following mean?
1. automation technology
2. fixed automation
3. assembly machines
4. non-productive time
5. programmable automation
6. computer terminal
7. numerical-control machine-tool
Text C: «ROBOTS IN MANUFACTURING»
Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations. The applications
of robots can be divided into three categories:
1. material handling
2. processing operations
3. assembly and inspection.
Material-handling is the transfer of material and loading and unloading
of machines. Material-transfer applications require the robot to move
materials or work parts from one to another. Many of these tasks are
relatively simple: robots pick up parts from one conveyor and place them
on another. Other transfer operations are more complex, such as placing
parts in an arrangement that can be calculated by the robot. Machine
loading and unloading operations utilize a robot to load and unload
parts. This requires the robot to be equipped with a grip-per that can
grasp parts. Usually the gripper must be designed specifically for the
particular part geometry.
In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to
perform a process on the work part. Examples of such applications
include spot welding, continuous arc welding and spray painting. Spot
welding of automobile bodies is one of the most common applications of
industrial robots. The robot positions a spot welder against the
automobile panels and frames to join them. Arc welding is a continuous
process in which robot moves the welding rod along the welding seam.
Spray painting is the manipulation of a spray-painting gun over the
surface of the object to be coated. Other operations in this category
include grinding and polishing in which a rotating spindle serves as the
robot’s tool.
The third application area of industrial robots is assembly and
inspection. The use of robots in assembly is expected to increase
because of the high cost of manual labour. But the design of the product
is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly methods that are
satisfactory for humans are not always suitable for robots. Screws and
nuts are widely used for fastening in manual assembly, but the same
operations are extremely difficult for an one-armed robot.
Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the
utilization of robots is growing. In a typical inspection job, the robot
positions a sensor with respect to the work part and determines whether
the part answers the quality specifications. In nearly all industrial
robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human labour.
There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by humans
that can be done by robots:
1. the operation is repetitive, involving the same basic work motions
every cycle,
2. the operation is hazardous or uncomfortable for the human worker (for
example: spray painting, spot welding, arc welding, and certain machine
loading and unloading tasks),
3. the workpiece or tool is too heavy and difficult to handle,
4. the operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts.
Vocabulary:
handling — обращение
transfer — передача, перенос
location — местонахождение
pick up — брать, подбирать
arrangement — расположение
to utilize — утилизировать, находить применение
gripper — захват
to grasp — схватывать
spot welding — точечная сварка
continuous — непрерывный
arc welding — электродуговая сварка
spray painting — окраска распылением
frame — рама
spray-painting gun — распылитель краски
grinding — шлифование
polishing — полирование
spindle — шпиндель
manual — ручной
labour — труд
hazardous — опасный
shift — смена
General understanding:
1. How are robots used in manufacturing?
2. What is «material handling»?
3. What does a robot need to be equipped with to do loading and
unloading operations?
4. What does robot manipulate in robotic processing operation?
5. What is the most common application of robots in automobile
manufacturing?
6. What operations could be done by robot in car manufacturing industry?
7. What are the main reasons to use robots in production?
8. How can robots inspect the quality of production?
9. What operations could be done by robots in hazardous or uncomfortable
for the human workers conditions?
Exercise 7.4. Translate into English:
1. Существует несколько различных сфер использования автоматизации в
производстве.
2. Для использования жесткой автоматизации необходимы большие
инвестиции.
3. Жесткая автоматизация широко используется в химической
промышленности.
4. Станки с числовым программным управлением — хороший пример
программируемой автоматизации.
5. Гибкая автоматизация делает возможным перепрограммирование
оборудования.
6. Время простоя оборудования оборачивается большими убытками.
7. Использование гибкой автоматизации делает возможным производство
разнообразной продукции.
FAMOUS PEOPLE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
James Watt
James Watt was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, known for
his improvements of the steam engine.
Watt was born on January 19, 1736, in Greenock, Scotland. He worked as a
mathematical-instrument maker from the age of 19 and soon became
interested in improving the steam engine which was used at that time to
pump out water from mines.
Watt determined the properties of steam, especially the relation of its
density to its temperature and pressure, and designed a separate
condensing chamber for the steam engine that prevented large losses of
steam in the cylinder. Watt’s first patent, in 1769, covered this device
and other improvements on steam engine.
At that time. Watt was the partner of the inventor John Roebuck, who had
financed his researches. In 1775, however. Roebuck’s interest was taken
over by the manufacturer Matthew Boulton, owner of the Soho Engineering
Works at Birmingham, and he and Watt began the manufacture of steam
engines. Watt continued his research and patented several other
important inventions, including the rotary engine for driving various
types of machinery; the double-action engine, in which steam is admitted
alternately into both ends of the cylinder; and the steam indicator,
which records the steam pressure in the engine. He retired from the firm
in 1800 and thereafter devoted himself entirely to research work.
The misconception that Watt was the actual inventor of the steam engine
arose from the fundamental nature of his contributions to its
development. The centrifugal or flyball governor, which he invented in
1788, and which automatically regulated the speed of an engine, is of
particular interest today. It embodies the feedback principle of a
servomechanism, linking output to input, which is the basic concept of
automation. The watt, the unit of power, was named in his honour. Watt
was also a well-known civil engineer. He invented, in 1767, an
attachment that adapted telescopes for use in the measurement of
distances. Watt died in Heathfield, near Birmingham, in August 1819.
UNIT8
COMPUTERS
I. Text A: «What is a computer?», Text B: «Hardware», Text C: «Types of
software»
II. Famous people of science and engineering: Charles Babbage.
Text A: «WHAT IS A COMPUTER?»
The term computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination
of electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part
mechanical) components. Computer has no intelligence by itself and is
referred to as hardware. A computer system is a combination of five
elements:
• Hardware
• Software
• People
• Procedures
• Data/information
When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer
system, connectivity becomes the sixth system element. In other words,
the manner in which the various individual systems are connected — for
example, by phone lines, microwave transmission, or satellite — is an
element of the total computer system.
Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the
hardware how to perform a task. Without software instructions, the
hardware doesn’t know what to do. People, however, are the most
important component of the computer system: they create the computer
software instructions and respond to the procedures that those
instructions present.
The basic job of the computer is the processing of information.
Computers accept information in the form of instruction called a program
and characters called data to perform mathematical and logical
operations, and then give the results. The data is raw material while
information is organized, processed, refined and useful for decision
making. Computer is used to convert data into information. Computer is
also used to store information in the digital form.
Vocabulary:
characters — символы
data — данные
decision — решение
device — устройство
hardware — оборудование
instruction — команда
intelligence — разум
manner — манера, способ
microwave — микроволновая
procedures — процедуры, операции
purpose — цель
raw — необработанный, сырой
to come to life — оживать
to connect — соединять
to convert — превращать, преобразовывать
to create — создавать
to evaluate — оценивать
to refer to as — называть что-либо
to refine — очищать
to respond — отвечать
transmission — передача
various — различные
General understanding:
1) What does the term «computer» describe?
2) Is computer intelligent?
3) What are five components of computer system?
4) What is connectivity?
5) What is software? What’s the difference between hardware and
software?
6) Why people are the most important component of a computer system?
7) In what way terms «data» and «information» differ?
8) How does computer convert data into information?
Exercise 8.1. Which of the listed below terms have Russian equivalents:
computer, diskette, metal, processor, scanner, information, data,
microphones, printer, modem, Internet.
Exercise 8.2. Which of the listed above statements are true/false.
Specify your answer using the text.
1) Computer is made of electronic components so it is referred to as
electronic device.
2) Computer has no intelligence until software is loaded.
3) There are five elements of computer system: hardware, software,
people, diskettes and data.
4) The manner in which computers are connected is the connectivity.
5) Without software instructions hardware doesn’t know what to do.
6) The software is the most important component because it is made by
people.
7) The user inputs data into computer to get information as an output.
8) Computer is used to help people in decision making process.
Exercise 8.3. Match the following:
1)… doesn’t come to life until it is connected to other parts of a
system.
2)… is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the
hardware how to perform a task.
3)… create the computer software instructions and respond to the
procedures that those instructions present
4) Information in the form of instruction is called a…
5) The manner in which the various individual systems are connected
is…
6)… is organized, processed and useful for decision making
7) The basic job of the computer is the…
a) program
b) information
c) processing of information
d) software
e) connectivity
f) computer
g) people
Exercise 8.4. Translate the text. Retell the text, using the vocabulary.
Exercise 8.5. Questions for group discussion:
1) Why so many people are still «computer illiterate»?
2) What are the most important applications of computer? (Are computer
games just a «waste of time» or it is a nice hobby and a lot of fun?)
3) Who has a computer in your group? Ask them what they use it for?
Text B: «HARDWARE»
What is hardware? Webster’s dictionary gives us the following definition
of the hardware — the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical
devices composing a computer system.
Computer hardware can be divided into four categories:
1) input hardware
2) processing hardware
3) storage hardware
4) output hardware.
Input hardware
The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert it into
a form suitable for computer processing. The most common input device is
a keyboard. It looks very much like a typewriter. The mouse is a hand
held device connected to the computer by small cable. As the mouse is
rolled across the mouse pad, the cursor moves across the screen. When
the cursor reaches the desired location, the user usually pushes a
button on the mouse once or twice to signal a menu selection or a
command to the computer.
The light pen uses a light sensitive photoelectric cell to signal screen
position to the computer. Another type of input hardware is
optic-electronic scanner that is used to input graphics as well as
typeset characters. Microphone and video camera can be also used to
input data into the computer. Electronic cameras are becoming very
popular among the consumers for their relatively low price and
convenience.
Processing hardware
The purpose of processing hardware is retrieve, interpret and direct the
execution of software instructions provided to the computer. The most
common components of processing hardware are the Central Processing Unit
and main memory.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It reads
and interprets software instructions and coordinates the processing
activities that must take place. The design of the CPU affects the
processing power and the speed of the computer, as well as the amount of
main memory it can use effectively. With a well-designed CPU in your
computer, you can perform highly sophisticated tasks in a very short
time.
Memory is the system of component of the computer in which information
is stored. There are two types of computer memory: RAM and ROM.
RAM (random access memory) is the volatile computer memory, used for
creating loading, and running programs and for manipulating and
temporarily storing data;
ROM (read only memory) is nonvolatile, non-modifiable computer memory,
used to hold programmed instructions to the system.
The more memory you have in your computer, the more operations you can
perform.
Storage hardware
The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and
data in a form that is relatively permanent and retrieve when needed for
processing. Storage hardware serves the same basic functions as do
office filing systems except that it stores data as electromagnetic
signals. The most common ways of storing data are Hard disk, floppy disk
and CD-ROM.
Hard disk is a rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing
programs and relatively large amounts of data.
Floppy disk (diskette) – thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated with
magnetic material, for storing computer data and programs. There are two
formats for floppy disks: 5.25″ and 3.5″. 5.25″ is not used in modern
computer systems because of it relatively large size flexibility and
small capacity. 3.5″ disks are formatted 1.4 megabytes and are widely
used.
CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) is a compact disc on which a
large amount of digitized read-only data can be stored. CD-ROMs are very
popular now because of the growing speed which CD-ROM drives can provide
nowadays. Output hardware
The purpose of output hardware is to provide the user with the means to
view information produced by the computer system. Information is output
in either hardcopy or softcopy form. Hardcopy output can be held in your
hand, such as paper with text (word or numbers) or graphics printed on
it. Softcopy output is displayed on a monitor.
Monitor is a component with a display screen for viewing computer data,
television programs, etc.
Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data
or graphics.
Modem is an example of communication hardware — an electronic device
that makes possible the transmission of data to or from computer via
telephone or other communication lines.
Hardware comes in many configurations, depending on what the computer
system is designed to do. Hardware can fill several floors of a large
office building or can fit on your lap.
Vocabulary:
amount — количество
capacity — вместительность
circuitry — эл. цепи
CPU, microprocessor — микропроцессор
hard disk — жесткий диск, «винчестер»
input hardware — устройства ввода данных
keyboard — клавиатура
lap — колени
modem — модем
mouse — устройство для перемещения объектов на экране, «мышь»
output hardware — выходные устройства отображения информации
printer — принтер
processing hardware — устройства обработки данных
RAM — ОЗУ (оперативное запоминающее устройство)
ROM — ПЗУ (постоянное запоминающее устройство)
CD-ROM — накопитель на компакт-дисках (CD)
scanner — сканер
sensitive — чувствительный
sophisticated — сложный
storage hardware — устройства хранения данных
temporarily — временно
temporary — временный
the purpose — цель
tier — ярус
to affect — влиять
to connect — соединять
to convert — преобразовывать
to direct — управлять
to execute — выполнять
to interpret — переводить
to provide — обеспечивать
to reach — достигать
to retrieve — извлекать
to roll — катать, перекатывать
volatile — летучий, нестойкий, временный
General understanding:
1. What is the Webster’s dictionary definition of the hardware?
2. What groups of hardware could be defined?
3. What is input hardware? What are the examples of input hardware?
4. What is mouse designed for? What is a light pen?
5. What is processing hardware? What are the basic types of memory used
in a PC?
6. Can a PC-user change the ROM? Who records the information in ROM?
7. What is storage hardware? What is CD-ROM used for? Can a user record
his or her data on a CD? What kind of storage hardware can contain more
information: CD-ROM, RAM or ROM?
8. What is modem used for? Can PC-user communicate with other people
without a modem?
Exercise 8.6. Which of the listed below statements are true/false.
Specify your answer using the text.
1) Computer is an electronic device therefore hardware is a system of
electronic devices.
2) The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert it
into a form suitable for computer processing.
3) Scanner is used to input graphics only.
4) The purpose of processing hardware is to retrieve, interpret and
direct the execution of software instructions provided to the computer.
5) CPU reads and interprets software and prints the results on paper.
6) User is unable to change the contents of ROM.
7) 5.25″ floppy disks are used more often because they are flexible and
have more capacity than 3.5″ disks.
5) Printer is a processing hardware because its purpose is to show the
information produced by the system.
6) Modem is an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of
data from one computer to another via telephone or other communication
lines.
7) The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and
data in a form that is relatively permanent and retrieve them when
needed for processing.
Exercise8.7. Give definitions to the following using the vocabulary
1)CPU
2) ROM
3) Floppy-disk
4) CD-ROM
5) Printer
6) Modem
7) Motherboard
8) Hard disk
9) Keyboard
10) Sound-card
Exercise 8.8. Which of the following is Hardware:
1) program
2) mouse
3)CPU
4) printer
5) modem
6) command
7) port
8) cursor or the pointer
9) keyboard
10) character
Exercise 8.9. Match the following:
1) процессор
2) клавиатура
3) мышь
4) дискета
5) «винчестер»
6) модем
7) экран
8) ПЗУ
9) ОЗУ
a) nonvolatile, non-modifiable computer memory, used to hold programmed
instructions to the system.
b) the part of a television or computer on which a picture is formed or
information is displayed.
c) rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing computer
programs and relatively large amounts of data.
d) an electronic device that makes possible he transmission of data to
or from computer via telephone or other communication lines.
e) a set of keys, usually arranged in tiers, for operating a typewriter,
typesetting machine, computer terminal, or the like.
f) volatile computer memory, used for creating, loading, and running
programs and for manipulating and temporarily storing data; main memory.
g) central processing unit: the key component of a computer system,
containing the circuitry necessary to interpret and execute program
instructions.
h) a palm-sized device equipped with one or more buttons, used to point
at and select items on a computer display screen and for controlling the
cursor by means of analogous movement on a nearby surface.
i) a thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material,
for storing computer data and program.
Questions for group discussion:
1) Without what parts computer is unable to work?
2) What is the most expensive part of the hardware?
3) What other hardware devices do you know? What are they for? Do you
know how to use them?
Text C: “TYPES OF SOFTWARE»
A computer to complete a job requires more than just the actual
equipment or hardware we see and touch. It requires Software — programs
for directing the operation of a computer or electronic data.
Software is the final computer system component. These computer programs
instruct the hardware how to conduct processing. The computer is merely
a general-purpose machine which requires specific software to perform a
given task. Computers can input, calculate, compare, and output data as
information. Software determines the order in which these operations are
performed.
Programs usually fall in one of two categories: system software and
applications software.
System software controls standard internal computer activities. An
operating system, for example, is a collection of system programs that
aid in the operation of a computer regardless of the application
software being used. When a computer is first turned on, one of the
systems programs is booted or loaded into the computers memory. This
software contains information about memory capacity, the model of the
processor, the disk drives to be used, and more. Once the system
software is loaded, the applications software can be brought in.
System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These
programs are called drivers and coordinate peripheral hardware and
computer activities. User needs to install a specific driver in order to
activate a peripheral device. For example, if you intend to buy a
printer or a scanner you need to worry in advance about the driver
program which, though, commonly goes along with your device. By
installing the driver you «teach» your mainboard to «understand» the
newly attached part.
Applications software satisfies your specific need. The developers of
application software rely mostly on marketing research strategies trying
to do their best to attract more users (buyers) to their software. As
the productivity of the hardware has increased greatly in recent years,
the programmers nowadays tend to include as much as possible in one
program to make software interface look more attractive to the user.
These class of programs is the most numerous and perspective from the
marketing point of view.
Data communication within and between computers systems is handled by
system software. Communications software transfers data from one
computer system to another. These programs usually provide users with
data security and error checking along with physically transferring data
between the two computer’s memories. During the past five years the
developing electronic network communication has stimulated more and more
companies to produce various communication software, such as
Web-Browsers for Internet.
Vocabulary:
aid — помощь
to attach — присоединять
control — управление
developer — разработчик
equipment — оборудование
general-purpose — общего назначения
internal — внутренний
mainboard — материнская плата
memory capacity — вместимость памяти
peripheral — периферийный
regard — отношение
regardless — несмотря на, безотносительно,
security — безопасность
specific — конкретный, определенный
to boot — загружать
to check — проверять
to complete — совершать, завершать
to conduct — проводить
to develop — развивать, проявлять
to direct — управлять, руководить
to handle — управлять, обращаться с
to install — устанавливать, встраивать, инсталлировать
to provide with — обеспечивать чем-либо
to require — требовать
to secure — обеспечивать безопасность
to transfer — переводить, переносить
Web-browser — «браузер» (программа, позволяющая пользователю искать и
считывать информацию с глобальной электронной сети Internet)
General understanding
1. What is software?
2. In what two basic groups software (programs) could be divided?
3. What is system software for?
4. What is an operating system — a system software or application
software?
5. What is a «driver»?
6. What is application software?
7. What is application software used for?
8. What is the tendency in application software market in the recent
years?
9. What is the application of the communication software?
Exercise 8.10. Which of the following is Software:
1. Program
2. Mouse
3. CPU
4. Word processor
5. Modem
6. Web-browser
7. Operating system
8. Scanner
9. Printer
10. Display
Exercise 8.11. Which of the listed below statements are true/false.
Specify your answer using the text:
1) Computer programs only instruct hardware how to handle data storage.
2) System software controls internal computer activities.
3) System software is very dependable on the type of application
software being used.
4) The information about memory capacity, the model of the processor and
disk drives are unavailable for system software.
5) The driver is a special device usually used by car drivers for
Floppy-disk driving.
6) It is very reasonable to ask for a driver when you buy a new piece of
hardware.
7) Software developers tend to make their products very small and with
poor interface to save computer resources.
8) Communication software is in great demand now because of the new
advances in communication technologies.
9) Application software is merely a general-purpose instrument.
10) Web-browsers is the class of software for electronic communication
through the network.
Exercise 8.12. Find English equivalents in the text:
1) Программное обеспечение определяет порядок выполнения операций.
2) Прикладные программы выполняют поставленную вами конкретную задачу
(удовлетворяют вашу потребность).
3) Этот класс программ — самый многочисленный и перспективный с точки
зрения маркетинга.
4) Системные программы предназначены для конкретных устройств
компьютерной системы.
5) Устанавливая драйвер, вы
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