Herzl Yankl Tsam, the only Jewish officer in the 19th century. Drafted
into the army as a 17-year-old Cantonist, he was made a captain only
after 41 years of service. In spite of pressures, he never converted to
Christianity. See Ioeaea! Caeeaaeea ia ii?aaeaeaia.
The Haggadah of Pessach, telling the story of Passover, one of the
principal Jewish festivals, commemorating the liberation from slavery
under the Pharaohs and the exodus from Egypt. See Ioeaea! Caeeaaeea ia
ii?aaeaeaia.
Judaism and the Jewish People
Ioeaea! Caeeaaeea ia ii?aaeaeaia. THE JEWISH PEOPLE descend from nomadic
tribes in the Middle East. In the 13th century BCE they establish towns
and villages in the present-day area of Israel. Jewish kingdoms and
states are centered around Jerusalem, the site of the Temple. Judaism,
the religion that evolves in this period, demands ethical behavior,
individual responsibility, tolerance and social justice.
Jews believe in a single god, prohibit human sacrifice and practice
communal worship. Many of the teachings of Judaism enter into
Christianity and Islam and influence other religions and cultures.
Judaism does not encourage conversions but has always accepted converts
from other religions.
In the Diaspora, the two thousand years of Jewish life in dispersion,
Judaism develops into many different trends: mystical movements like the
Kabbalah that search for hidden meanings and mysteries in the Biblical
texts; pietistic movements like Hassidism that hold simple faith and
intensity of religious experience higher than scholarship; and
rationalistic schools of theology that explain the scriptures by the
logic of reason and history.
Communities in the Diaspora provide the framework for Jewish life:
synagogues, schools, bathhouses and kosher food. Communities are often
isolated, having little or no contact with groups in other countries.
But Jews continue to use the same Biblical texts and prayers and adhere
to the same religious laws.
When Jews are granted equal rights and begin to live outside of Jewish
communities, Judaism loses its unifying force. Modern religious
movements develop, abandoning the common bases of traditional Judaism.
In countries where no legal or social barriers exist, Jews begin to
assimilate, and many embrace a secular identity. After the Holocaust,
the idea of a common history and fate again gains strength among Jews.
The Jewish Diaspora and Israel
Ioeaea! Caeeaaeea ia ii?aaeaeaia. THE FIRST JEWISH communities outside
of Israel are established during the Babylonian Exile (700 BCE). Jews
also settle on the Arabian Peninsula and in Egypt. After the Jewish
revolts against the Roman occupation (66-135 CE), Jews are banned from
living in Jerusalem and Judea. Under Byzantine rule (324-640 CE),
Christianity is introduced in Israel and many anti-Jewish laws are
enacted. By the 6th century, Jews have become a minority in their own
land. After the Arab conquest, the Jewish population declines further.
At the time of the first crusades (11th century), only a few thousand
Jews remain in Israel.
Jews for many centuries form the only religious and ethnic minority in
the countries they settled in. They live in their own communities
separate from the general population under special laws and
restrictions. They use the Hebrew language or dialects that combined
Hebrew with the language of the country: Yiddish among Ashkenasim, Jews
who originally settled in Germany; Ladino among Sephardim, Jews who have
migrated to Spain, and Judeo-Arabic among Jews in North Africa.
Despite their enforced separateness, Jewish communities in the Diaspora
adopt many customs of the surrounding cultures. Integrating non-Jews
into the community through marriage is common practice. Many also
convert to Christianity or Islam. As a result, Jews in the Diaspora
usually are members of two cultures (Jewish and Arabic, for example) and
also resemble outwardly the surrounding population.
Jewish communities in Moslem countries, in Spain and Portugal, prosper
culturally and economically, despite some restrictions. Jews in
Christian Europe are subject to oppression, persecution and sporadic
expulsions alternating with periods of relative peace and prosperity.
Sephardim and Ashkenasim develop different customs and religious
practices over the centuries.
With emancipation, the granting of equal rights, and the diminishing
role of religion, Jews begin to integrate fully into the societies they
have lived in for hundreds of years. For many, Jewishness becomes a
secular and national identity. In the 19th century, Zionism, a Jewish
national movement, proposes a return to Israel and the re-establishment
of a Jewish state. In 1948 this new state is founded. Millions of Jews
emigrate to Israel, but a majority of the Jewish population continues to
live in the Diaspora.
The First Crusade
DURING THE FIRST 700 years of Christendom, Jewish communities in Europe
are rarely placed in direct physical danger. But the situation changes
when, in 1095, Pope Urbanus calls for a crusade to liberate Jerusalem
from the hands of the Muslims.
On their way to Jerusalem, the crusaders leave a track of death and
destruction behind in the Jewish communities along the Rhine and Danube.
“Because,” as they exclaim, “why should we attack the unbelievers in the
Holy Land, and leave the infidels in our midst undisturbed ?”
On May 25, 1096, about 800 Jews are murdered in Worms, Germany, while
many others choose suicide. In Regensburg, the Jews are thrown into the
Danube to be “baptized.” In Mainz, Cologne, Prague and many other
cities, thousands of Jews are killed and their possessions plundered.
During the following hundred years, new crusades are accompanied by
massacres and pillage among the Jewish population.
With the crusades, the status of the Jews as second class citizens
becomes entrenched in Church dogma and state laws throughout Christian
Europe. A period of oppression and insecurity follows that ends only in
the 18th century.
Anti-Jewish Myths
IN THE MIDDLE AGES, belief in miracles and legends is common. Two myths
with an anti-Jewish character appear throughout Europe: Jews desecrating
the Host; and Jews committing ritual murder. Both myths survive into the
20th century. Other popular beliefs during the Middle Ages have Jews
grow hems and tails – attributes of the devil.
After the Church in 1215 establishes the doctrine that the flesh and
blood of Jesus Christ is contained in the consecrated Host and wine,
stories begin to surface that Jews steal, mutilate or burn the Host in
order to kill Jesus once more. Miracles form an elementary part of this
myth: the mutilated Host starts to bleed – thus proving the doctrine and
the truth of the Christian faith.
According to the “blood libels,” Jews are killing Christian children in
order to satisfy their supposed need for “Christian blood” in making
Passover bread or in other religious rituals. While higher authorities
of the Church and state often oppose the stories, the myth lives on in
popular belief, supported and encouraged by local clergy who launch
profitable pilgrimages to the sites of the alleged murders.
The Blood Libels are the most influential and cruel legends in the
arsenal of anti-Jewish beliefs, perpetuating the myth of the evil and
inhuman nature of the Jews and inciting the Christian population to take
bloody revenge. Allegations of ritual murder will surface in the 20th
century, in Russia and in the propaganda spread by the Nazis.
Patterns of Discrimination
IN 1215, THE POPE issues a decree that Jews must wear special marks on
their dress to distinguish them more clearly from Christians. The Church
wants to prevent Christians from unknowingly associating with Jews.
These discriminating dress marks differ from place to place: sometimes
Jews have to wear a yellow or red badge on their dress, sometimes a
pointed hat, the so-called “Jew hat.”
Not only dress marks are used to separate Jews from Christians. More and
more, Jews are forced to live together in isolation, in ghettos closed
off by walls. As ghettos are usually not allowed to extend, they become
increasingly crowded
The most far-reaching act of discrimination concerns an even more basic
right: Jews do not receive permission for permanent residence in towns
and villages. As they have been forced more and more into trade,
peddling and money lending, Jews are admitted to towns for limited
periods only when economic development demands more trade and credit.
They have to pay extra taxes. When the economic situation changes or
local merchants have fallen too deeply into debts, the permits are not
extended. Often, Jews are simply expelled.
Many communities have to pay taxes to the king or prince in return for
their protection. In the German states, Jews are considered property of
the emperor who sells the right to tax them to local princes and
bishops. Often, Jewish communities are caught between the rival economic
interests of townspeople and the local princes who “own” the Jews.
“Usury”
DURING THE SECOND HALF of the Middle Ages, towns grow and trade expands.
Many economic functions the Jews had fulfilled in the past are taken
over by other groups. More and more professions and crafts are organized
in guilds. As only guild members are allowed to practice in these
professions, and new members have to pledge an oath on the Bible, Jews
are effectively excluded from membership.
In Western and Central Europe, Jews are driven from one occupation after
another. Only trade and money-lending remains open to them. Many Jewish
communities sink into poverty, and only a few continue to prosper. As
the Church forbids Christians to lend money against interest, but the
need for credit in the expanding economy increases, Jews are often the
only ones to provide loans. Interest on loans is high because of the
risks involved and the lack of capital.
Jews become identified with “usury,” the lending of money against
excessive interest. Another stereotype of “the Jew” is created against
the background of the same economic circumstances: the Jews as poor
peddlers of second-hand articles. These two contradictory images of the
Jews, the harsh and unfair moneylender and the poor and untrustworthy
peddler, survive into the 20th century – long after their origins in
religious intolerance and economic marginalization have disappeared
The Jewish Community
COMMUNITIES ARE AT THE CENTER of Jewish life in the Diaspora. In the
Middle Ages, communities are usually very small, comprising one or two
dozen families. In the larger cities, they can comprise a population of
several thousand.
Being outsiders in the feudal order of the times, Jews enjoy a large
degree of autonomy in regulating their own affairs. Communities raise
taxes to pay for synagogues and cemeteries, for the employment of rabbis
and teachers, and to feed and house the poor. They are administered by
elders elected by members who also vote on the community’s statutes.
Crimes inside the community and legal disputes between members are
resolved by Rabbinical courts. There is no police force and no prisons.
Courts punish by imposing fines or by banning perpetrators from the
community temporarily or permanently.
To enable members to abide by the dietary laws, communities provide for
the slaughter of cows, goats, sheep and chicken in the prescribed
manner. They also construct bathhouses to allow members to follow the
rules of ritual purification. Larger communities maintain religious
academies where the Torah and Talmud are studied and rabbis are trained.
Nrimes inside the community and legal disputes between members are
resolved by Rabbinical courts. There is no police force and no prisons.
Courts punish by imposing fines or by banning perpetrators from the
community temporarily or permanently.
To enable members to abide by the dietary laws, communities provide for
the slaughter of cows, goats, sheep and chicken in the prescribed
manner. They also construct bathhouses to allow members to follow the
rules of ritual purification. Larger communities maintain religious
academies where the Torah and Talmud are studied and rabbis are trained.
Expulsions and the Black Death
AFTER THE CRUSADES, expulsions of entire Jewish communities become
frequent events. In 1290, all Jews are expelled from England – about
16,000 people. Communities in England are again established only in the
17th century. In 1306, Jews are also expelled from France.
Expulsions are often preceded by accusations of ritual murder and
anti-Jewish riots. Taking advantage of these anti-Jewish sentiments,
local rulers, town magistrates or merchants use the opportunity to rid
themselves of Jewish moneylenders they owe money to, or of unwanted
competition. Just as Jews are admitted to towns to promote trade or
provide credit, expulsions are mostly grounded in economic interests as
well.
The 14th century is overshadowed by a great disaster: Europe is hit by
the plague. Between 1348 and 1350 the epidemics kill millions of people
– a third of the European population.
As the real causes are unknown, foreigners, travelers and the Jews, the
only non-Christian minority in all affected countries, are accused of
having spread the disease. Many believe that Jewish communities are
taking revenge for decades of anti-Jewish hostility by poisoning the
wells and water supplies.
While the disease is progressing from Spain and Italy north to England
and Poland, about 300 Jewish communities are attacked, and thousands of
Jews burned at the stakes or killed. In the German states almost all
Jewish communities are expelled.
With the forced conversions and expulsion from Portugal and Spain at the
end of the 15th century, the highly developed communities of the Iberian
Peninsula are destroyed and Sephardic Jews forced into renewed exile.
Sporadic expulsion of Jewish communities in Europe continue into the
19th century.
Aa?oeaeue ssieaeue Oeai, aaeeinoaaiiue ?inneenee aa?ae, iieo/eaoee a 19
aaea ioeoea?neee /ei. A 17 eao aai caa?aee a “eaioiienou”, iinea /aai ii
i?ineoaeee a a?iee 41 aiae, ii aeineoaeeeny oieueei aei eaieoaia. Ia
iiaeaeaaoenue aeaaeaieth, ii oae e ia i?eiye o?enoeainoai.
Ianoaeueiay Oaaaaea – eceiaeaiea enoi?ee i?acaeieea ianoe eee
“i?ioiaeaeaiey” – iaeiiai ec aeaaiuo eoaeaeneeo i?acaeieeia a iaiyoue
/oaeaniiai ecaaaeaiey aa?aaa io aaeiaoneiai ?aanoaa e enoiaea ec Aaeioa.
Niio?e
Eoaeaeci e Aa?aeneee Ia?iae
Ioeaea! Caeeaaeea ia ii?aaeaeaia.Ia/aei aa?aeneiio ia?iaeo aeaee
neioiaiae/aneea ieaiaia, ei/aaaaoea ii N?aaeiaio Ainoieo. A 13 aaea aei
i.y. iie ia/aee ia?anaeyoueny ia caiee, i?eiaaeeaaeauea naaiaeiy
ainoaea?noao Ec?aeeue, inaaeaoue oai e no?ieoue naeaiey e ai?iaea.
Oeaio?ii ainoaea?noaaiiinoe aa?aaa anaaaea aue Ea?onaeei, nayuaiiia
ianoi, aaea iaoiaeeeny O?ai. Ieii/aoaeueii noi?ie?iaaaoeany a yoo yiioo
?aeeaeiciua eaiiiu eoaeaecia o?aaiaaee no?iaiai niaethaeaiey
i?aanoaaiiuo ii?i, ee/iie ioaaonoaaiiinoe, oa?ieiinoe e nioeeaeueiie
ni?aaaaeeeainoe.
Eoaeae aa?iaaee a Aaeeiiai Aiaa, ia i?eciaaaee /aeiaa/aneeo
aea?oaii?eiioaiee e niaa?oaee iauanoaaiiua aiaineoaeaiey. Iiiaia ec
?aeeaeiciiai o/aiey eoaeaecia auei aiineaaenoaee oianeaaeiaaii
o?enoeainoaii e eneaiii e ieacaei aeeyiea ia ae?oaea ?aeeaee e
eoeueoo?u. Eoaeae ieeiaaea ia i?eaaonoaiaaee ia?aiaiu ?aeeaeiciuo
oaaaeaeaiee, ii anaaaea i?eieiaee a naia iauanoai iaioeoia, ia?aoiaeyueo
a eoaeaeci ec ae?oaeo ?aeeaee.
Ca aeaa ouny/e eao aeecie aa?aaa a ?annayiee, a Aeeanii?a, eoaeaeci
i?aoa?iae iaiaei eciaiaiee. A iai iiyaeeinue iiiaeanoai naiuo ?acee/iuo
oa/aiee: e /enoi ienoe/aneea, oaeea, eae Eaaaeea, eneaaoea oaeinoaaiiue
niune a aeaeaeneeo oaenoao; e aeaeaeaiey ?aeeaeiciuo ienoeeia, a?iaea
oanneaeia, noaaeaoeo auoa o/aiinoe e iao/iiai iiciaiey aanoeo?inoiinoue
aa?u e aeoaeio ?aeeaeiciuo ia?aaeeaaiee; e ?aoeeiiaeenoe/aneea
aiaineianeea oeieu, iaueyniyaoea ioe?iaaiey Nayuaiiiai Ienaiey n
eiae/aneie e enoi?e/aneie oi/ae c?aiey.
Eoaeaeneea iaueiu a Aeeanii?a nicaeaaaee oo no?oeoo?o, eioi?ay iicaieyea
aa?ayi aeeoue a niioaaonoaee n o?aaiaaieyie Caeiia: o ieo auee naie
neiaaiae, oeieu, aaie, eaaee, a eioi?uo i?iaeaaaee eioa?ioth ieuo. Yoe
iaueiu, ?annayiiua ii ?aciui no?aiai, aeeee caieiooi,ia iiaeaea?aeeaay
ia?aeaeo niaie ii/oe ieeaeeo eiioaeoia. Ii ana iie iieueciaaeenue
iaeieie e oaie aea aeaeaeneeie oaenoaie, aiciineee iaeie e oa aea
iieeoau, iiae/eiyeenue iaeiei e oai aea ?aeeaeiciui eaiiiai.
Iaeiaei ii ia?a oiai, eae aa?ae iieo/aee ?aaiua n ae?oaeie i?aaa,
caieiooua ?aiee iauei iinoaiaiii ?ac?ooaeenue, e eoaeaeci oa?ye naith
iaueaaeeiythuoth neeo. Iiaua ?aeeaeiciua oa/aiey ana aieueoa ionooiaee
io e oaeaeneie o?aaeeoeee. A oao no?aiao, aaea ia auei ieeaeeo
th?eaee/aneeo eee nioeeaeueiuo i?aiyonoaee, aa?ae ia/aee
anneieee?iaaoueny, e iiiaea iieiinoueth ?anoai?eeenue a i?eiyaoeo eo a
naia eiii iauanoaao. Ii iinea aaiioeeaea, iinea ianniaiai oie/oiaeaiey
aa?aaa oaoenoaie, eaeay iauiinoe enoi?ee e noaeueau aiiaue iaeaaeaea eo
oiaie.
Aa?aeneay Aeeanii?a e Ec?aeeue
Ioeaea! Caeeaaeea ia ii?aaeaeaia. Ia?aua aa?aeneea iaueiu ca i?aaeaeaie
Ec?aeey iiyaeeenue ai a?aiaia Aaaeeiineiai ieaiaiey (700 a. aei i.y.).
E?iia oiai, aa?ae iainiiaaeenue ia A?aaeeneii iieoino?iaa e a Aaeioa.
Iinea aa?aeneeo ainnoaiee i?ioea ?eieyi (66-135 aa i.y.) aa?ae aiiaua
auee ecaiaiu ec Ea?onaeeia e Eoaeae. Ai a?aiaia aecaioeeneeo eiia?aoi?ia
(324-640 aa i.y.) a Ec?aeea ianaaeaeaeinue o?enoeainoai e auei i?eiyoi
iiiaeanoai aioeeoaeaeneeo caeiiia. E 6-io aaeo aa?ae ia naiae
nianoaaiiie caiea noaee ?aeeaeiciui iaiueoeinoaii. Iinea a?aaneiai
caaiaaaiey /eneaiiinoue aa?aeneiai ianaeaiey nie?aoeeinue aua aieueoa.
Oaeei ia?acii, ei a?aiaie ia?auo e?anoiauo iioiaeia (11 aae) a Ec?aeea
inoaeinue anaai ianeieueei ouny/ aa?aaa.
Ia i?ioyaeaiee noieaoee aa?ae auee aaeeinoaaiiui
iaoeeiiaeueii-?aeeaeiciui iaiueoeinoaii a oao no?aiao, aaea iie
inaaeaee. Iie aeeee caieioouie iaueiaie, ioai?iaeeaoenue io ianoiiai
ianaeaiey oeaeui naiaeii iniauo caeiiia e ia?aie/aiee. Iaaeaeo niaie iie
iauaeenue ia ea?eoa eee ia ?acee/iuo aeeaeaeoao, i?aaenoaaeyaoeo nianue
ea?eoa n ianoiuie ycueaie: oae n?aaeia-e ainoi/ii-aa?iiaeneea aa?ae,
ecia/aeueii inaaoea a Aa?iaiee, aiai?eee ia eaeeoa; Naoa?aeei – aa?ae,
ia?anaeeaoeany a Eniaieth, – ia eoaeaenei-eniaineii; aa?ae no?ai Iaa?eaa
– ia eoaeaenei-a?aaneii.
Iaeiaei, ianiio?y ia oi, /oi aa?aeneea iaueiu Aeeanii?u aeieaeiu auee
aeeoue a iainiaeaiee, iie ia?aieiaee iiiaeanoai iau/aaa naiaai
eoeueoo?iiai ie?oaeaiey. E?iia oiai, iin?aaenoaii niaoaiiuo a?aeia a
iaueiu iianaianoii i?iieeaee i?aaenoaaeoaee ae?oaeo iaoeeiiaeueiinoae, a
naie aa?ae ii?ie ia?aoiaeeee ec aa?u iooeia a o?enoeainoai eee eneai.
Oaeei ia?acii, aa?ae Aeeanii?u i?eiaaeeaaeaee e aeaoi eoeueoo?ai
(iai?eia?, eoaeaeneie e a?aaneie) e aiaoia iaei ioee/aeenue io ianoiuo
aeeoaeae.
A eneaineeo no?aiao, a Eniaiee e Ii?ooaaeee, ianiio?y ia ana
ia?aie/aiey, aa?aeneea iaueiu i?ioeaaoaee eae a eoeueoo?iii, oae e a
yeiiiie/aneii ioiioaieyo. *oi aea eanaaony o?enoeaineie Aa?iiu, oi oai
ia?eiaeu i?eoaniaiee, aiiaiee, noeoeeiuo aa?aeneeo iia?iiia niaiyeenue
ia?eiaeaie ioiineoaeueiiai niieienoaey e aeaaea aeaaiaeainoaey. Yoei
iaueyniyaony ?acee/ea ?aeeaeiciuo o?aaeeoeee e iau/aaa, neiaeeaoeony ia
i?ioyaeaiee noieaoee o n?aaeia- e ainoi/ii-aa?iiaeneeo aa?aaa e
Naoa?aeei.
N ioiaiie ?aanoaa, i?iaicaeaoaieai a?aaeaeaineiai ?aaainoaa e
naeoey?ecaoeeae aa?ae ia/aee iieiinoueth anneieee?iaaoueny n oaie
iauanoaaie, a eioi?uo noieaoeyie aeeee eo i?aaeee. Aeey iiiaeo ec ieo
iacaaiea “eoaeae” inoaeinue eeoue i?eciaeii iaoeeiiaeueiie e eoeueoo?iie
i?eiaaeeaaeiinoe. Iaeiaei a 19 aaea aicieeei aeaeaeaiea aa?aeneeo
iaoeeiiaeenoia – neiieci, auaeaeioaoaa eaeath aica?auaiey aa?aaa a
Ec?aeeue e ainnoaiiaeaiey aa?aeneie ainoaea?noaaiiinoe. Eaeaa yoie
noaeaeaii auei aiieioeoueny a aeeciue a 1948 aiaeo. N oao ii? a Ec?aeeue
ia?anaeeeenue ieeeeiiu aa?aaa. E ana aea aieueoeinoai ii-i?aaeiaio
inoaaony a Aeeanii?a.
Ia?aue E?anoiaue Iioiae
Ia?aua 700 eao o?enoeaineie y?u aa?aeneea iaueiu a Aa?iia ?aaeei
iiaeaa?aaeenue iianiinoe i?yiiai oece/aneiai oie/oiaeaiey. Iaeiaei iinea
oiai, eae a 1095 aiaeo iaia O?aai i?ecaae o?enoeai inaiaiaeeoue
Ea?onaeei io ionoeueiai, neooaoeey ?acei eciaieeanue.
A?iciui nia?/ai i?iianeenue e?anoiiinoeu ii aeieeiai ?aeia e Aeoiay, nay
nia?oue e ?ac?ooaiea a iainiiaaaoeony oai aa?aeneeo iaueiao. “?acaa,
ioi?aaeyynue n?aaeaoueny n iaaa?iuie a Nayooth Caieth, iu ia aeieaeiu
enei?aieoue eo nia/aea o naay ca nieiie?”- aiai?eee aieiu O?enoiau.
25 iay 1096 aiaea aea?oaaie aa?aeneiai iia?iia a aa?iaineii ai?iaea
Ai?ina noaei 800 /aeiaae. Nia?oue eo auea noieue oaeania, /oi iiiaea
aa?ae i?aaeii/ee iaeiaeeoue ia naay ?oee, /oiau ecaaaeaoue io/aiee. A
?aaainao?aa aa?aaa “e?anoeee”, na?anuaay aeeauie a Aeoiae. A Iaeioea,
Eaeueia, I?aaa e iiiaeo ae?oaeo ai?iaeao auee au?acaiu ouny/e aa?aaa, a
eo eiouanoai ooo aea ?aca?aaeaii.
Noi eao i?iaeieaeaeenue e?anoiaua iioiaeu, e eaaeaeue nii?iaiaeaeaeny
?aciae e a?aaaaeii aa?aaa. Iinea e?anoiauo iioiaeia noaoon aa?aaa –
ethaeae aoi?iai ni?oa aue cae?aieai a o?enoeaineie Aa?iia eae
oea?eiaiui, oae e a?aaeaeaineei caeiiiaeaoaeuenoaii. N oao ii?
i?eoaniaiey i?aneaaeiaaee aa?aaa aieioue aei 18 aaea
Aioeaa?aeneea Ieou
A N?aaeiea aaea ethaee aa?eee a /oaeana e eaaaiaeu. A yoi a?aiy ii anae
Aa?iia ?ani?ino?aieeenue aeaa ienoe/aneeo i?aaeoaaaeaeaiey i?ioea
aa?aaa: eo iaaeiyee a ineaa?iaiee Oaea O?enoiaa e a niaa?oaiee
?eooaeueiuo oaeenoa. Oaeeaeoaeueii, /oi yoe noaaa?ey nio?aieeenue aei
iaoeo aeiae. Iaiaaenoue e aa?ayi o n?aaeiaaaeiauo o?enoeai aeioiaeeea
aei oiai, /oi iie aa?eee, aoaeoi o ieo ?anooo ?iaa e oainou, eae o
aania.
Iinea oiai, eae a 1215 aiaeo Oea?eiaue iiaeoaa?aeeea aeiaiao i
“i?anouanoaeaiee Nayouo Aea?ia”, niaeanii eioi?iio oeaa e aeii ai a?aiy
niaa?oaiey oaeinoaa aaoa?enoee “i?anouanoaeyaony” a Oaei e E?iaue
O?enoiau, noaee ?ani?ino?aiyoueny neooe, /oi aa?ae e?aaeoo Nayoua Aea?u,
/oiau eco?iaeiaaoue eee naea/ue eo, e oai naiui aua ?ac oaeoue Eenona
O?enoa. Yoi noaaa?ea ia?anoaei ?anneacaie i anaaiciiaeiuo /oaeanao:
aiai?eee, /oi ineaa?iaiiua Nayoua Aea?u ia/eiatho e?iaioi/eoue.
Iiaeiaiua ciaiaiey eeoiee ?ac iiaeoaa?aeaeaee enoeiiinoue o?enoeaineie
aa?u e o/aiey Oea?eae.
Ii naiui no?aoiui, “e?iaaaui” iaaeiaieai auei iaaeiaiea aa?aaa a
?eooaeueiii oaeenoaa o?enoeaineeo ieaaeaioeaa, e?iaue eioi?uo yeiau
ioaeia auea aeey i?eaioiaeaiey ianoaeueiiai ii?anii/iiai oeaaa – iaoeu.
I?aaenoaaeoaee aunoae oea?eiaiie e naaoneie aeanoe iaiaeiie?aoii
iuoaeenue ii?iaa?aiooue yoi noaaa?ea, ii iii i?iaeieaeaei aeeoue a
i?inoii ia?iaea, iiaeia?aaaaiia ianoiuie eee?eeaie,i?aaieciaaaoeie
iaeiiie/anoaa a yoe ianoa, e iieo/aaoeie io yoiai iaiaeoth i?eaueue.
Eiaiii ieo i ?eooaeueiuo oaeenoaao, eae naiue aeeao/ee e aeanoieee, aue
acyo ia aii?oaeaiea i?iiiaaaeieeaie aioeaa?aeneeo iano?iaiee. Ii eae
iaeuecy aieaa niinianoaiaae neooai i aanianeie, ia/aeiaa/aneie i?e?iaea
aa?aaa, iiaeno?aeay o?enoeai e e?iaaaiio aiciacaeeth. A iaoai
o?aae/aneii aaea naiaiai yoiai n?aaeiaaaeiaiai noaaa?ey noaeaeaii auei
i?i?anoe, a 20 noieaoee nnueee ia iaai ia ?ac eniieueciaaea iaoeenoneay
i?iiaaaiaea.
Oi?iu Aeene?eieiaoeee
A 1215 aiaeo iaia ecaeae oeac, iiaaeaaaaoee anai aa?ayi iineoue ia
iaeaaeaea iniaua ciaee ioee/ey, /oiau ieeoi ia iia niooaoue eoaeay n
o?enoeaieiii. Yoie ia?ie oea?eiaue no?aieeanue ia?aaeeoue aa?othueo io
iauaiey n aa?ayie. Ciaee ioee/ey a ?aciuo no?aiao auee ?aciuie. Aaea-oi
aa?ayi i?aaeienuaaeinue iaoeaaoue ia ieaouea aeaeoua eee e?aniua iaoee,
aaea-oi – iineoue ino?ieiia/iua oeyiu, i?icaaiiua a ia?iaea
“aa?aeneeie”.
Ii ia oieueei iaeaaeaea auaeaeyea aa?aaa ec o?enoeaineie n?aaeu. Eo ana
/aua auioaeaeaee aeeoue a ianeeuenoaaiiie ecieyoeee, ca aunieeie noaiaie
aaooi. A iineieueeo ?anoe?youe oa??eoi?eth aaooi cai?auaeinue, oi aeeoue
aa?ayi, anoanoaaiii, i?eoiaeeeinue a iaauiineiie neo/aiiinoe e oaniioa.
Ii naiua aeaeaei eaeouea iineaaenoaey eiaei ia?ooaiea iaeiiai ec
iniiaiuo i?aa /aeiaaea: aa?ae eeoaeenue i?aaa ia iinoiyiiia i?iaeeaaiea
a oii eee eiii ai?iaea eee aea?aaia. A neeo neiaeeaoeony enoi?e/aneeo
oneiaee, aa?ae ana /aua auoaniyeenue ec naiuo ?aciiia?aciuo noa?
aeayoaeueiinoe e auee auioaeaeaiu ia?aie/eoue naie caiyoey aeaaiui
ia?acii oi?aiaeae e aeaiaaeiuie aeaeaie. A e?oiiua ai?iaea eo aeiioneaee
ia ia?aie/aiiia a?aiy, aea e oi eeoue oiaaea, eiaaea yeiiiie/aneay
neooaoeey o?aaiaaea ?anoe?aiey oi?aiauo iia?aoeee e e?aaeeoa. I?e/ai n
aa?aaa acuiaeenue iniaua, aeiiieieoaeueiua iaeiae. Iaeiaei noieei
yeiiiie/aneiio iieiaeaieth au?iaiyoueny eee ianoiui eiiia?naioai
caeacoue a aeieae, eae aa?ayi ooo aea ioeacuaaeenue i?iaeeaaaoue aeae ia
aeeoaeuenoai. Ca/anooth eo i?inoi ecaiiyee.
Iiiaea aa?aeneea iaueiu iaeaaaeenue iaeiaaie a iieueco ei?iey eee eiycy,
iaauaaoaai ei “i?ioaeoeeth”. A aa?iaineeo eiyaeanoaao aa?ae n/eoaeenue
“nianoaaiiinoueth” eiia?aoi?a, eioi?ue i?iaeaaae i?aai acuiaoue n ieo
iaeiae ianoiui eiycueyi e aieneiiai. A ?acoeueoaoa aa?ae ca/anooth
iiiaaeaee a “eeaue” iaaeaeo eioa?anaie ai?iaeai, aeey eioi?uo iie auee
iianiuie eiieo?aioaie, e ianoiuo eiycae, caeioa?aniaaiiuo a oii, /oiau
iieo/eoue iiaieueoa iaeiaia ni “naieo” aa?aaa.
“?inoiaue/anoai
N na?aaeeiu N?aaeieo aaeia ia/aeny ?anoeaao ai?iaeia e oi?aiaee.
O?aaeeoeeiiii aa?aeneea noa?u yeiiiie/aneie aeayoaeueiinoe noaee
iinoaiaiii iooiaeeoue ae?oaei a?oiiai ianaeaiey. ?aianeaiieee
iaueaaeeiyeenue a aeeueaeee. Oieueei /eaiai aeeueaeee ?ac?aoaeinue
caieiaoueny aeaiiui ?aianeii, a /oiau anooieoue a iaa, ioaeii auei
iieeynoueny ia Aeaeee, iiyoiio aeey aa?aaa aeinooi a aeeueaeeth aue
cae?uo.
A Caiaaeiie e Oeaio?aeueiie Aa?iia, aa?ae iinoaiaiii iooaniyeenue io
naieo iau/iuo caiyoee. A eiioea eiioeia o ieo inoaeenue eeoue oi?aiaey e
?inoiaue/anoai. Aieueoeinoai aa?aeneeo iauei iaaaeiaei e eeoue iaiiiaei
oaeaeinue oaea?aeaoueny ia ieaao. Iineieueeo Oea?eiaue cai?auaea
o?enoeaiai aeaaaoue aeaiueae a ?ino iiae i?ioeaiou, a ia yeiiiie/aneea
ioaeaeu iinoiyiii o?aaiaaeenue e?aaeeou, aa?ae ca/anooth ieacuaaeenue
aaeeinoaaiiuie, o eiai iiaeii auei iieo/eoue nnoaeo. Anoanoaaiii,
aeaiueae iie aeaaaee iiae aieueoea i?ioeaiou: neeoeii aaeee aue ?ene e
aeaaae naay ciaoue iaaeinoaoie eaieoaea.
Iinoaiaiii neiai “aa?ae” noaei eaeaioeoeoee?iaaoueny ni neiaii
“?inoiauee”. Aoi?ie noa?aioei, ii?iaeaeaiiue oaie aea yeiiiie/aneeie
ianoiyoaeuenoaaie: aa?ae- iaei/iue oi?aiaaoe, nauaathuee iiaea?aeaiiue
oiaa? e ?aciia noa?uea. Yoe aeaa iiey?iuo ia?aca – aacaeaeinoiiai e
nea?aaeiiai ?inoiaueea e aeoeeeiaaoiai eioi/ieea – nio?aieeenue aei
iaoaai a?aiaie, oioy naaiaeiy iaei eoi iiiieo, /oi iaa iie auee
?iaeaeaiu ?aeeaeiciie iaoa?ieiinoueth e yeiiiie/aneeie oneiaeyie
Aa?aeneay Iaueia
Oeaio?ii aeecie aa?aaa Aeeanii?u anaaaea auea iaueia. A N?aaeiea aaea
iaueiu yoe auee, eae i?aaeei, iaaieueoeie, iaueaaeeiyaoeie ia aieaa
iaeiie aethaeeiu naiae. I?aaaea, a e?oiiuo ai?iaeao iie eiiaaea
?ac?anoaeenue aei ianeieueeeo ouny/ /aeiaae.
Eneeth/aiiua ec oaiaeaeueiie ea?a?oe/aneie no?oeoo?u, aa?ae
iieueciaaeenue cia/eoaeueiie naiaiaeie a naiioi?aaeaiee. Iaueiu niae?aee
aeaiueae aeey oieaou iaeiaia ca niaea?aeaiea eeaaeaeu e neiaaia, ia
niaea?aeaiea ?aaaeiia e o/eoaeae, ia iiiiuue aaaeiyeai, ioaeaeaaoeiny a
e?iaa e eonea oeaaa. Oi?aaeyeanue iaueia noa?aeoeiaie, eca?aiiuie a
?acoeueoaoa aieiniaaiey. Onoaa iaueiu oaeaea ooaa?aeaeaeny anaie aa
/eaiaie.
I?anooieaiey, niaa?oaaoeany /eaiaie iaueiu i?ioea naieo nia?aoueaa,
?aaii eae e ana th?eaee/aneea nii?u, ?anniao?eaae noae ?aaaeiia. Ie
oth?ai, ie iieeoeaeneiai aiia?aoa a iaueiao ia auei. Iiyoiio noae iia
i?enoaeeoue aeiiaiiio eeai auieaoo oo?aoa, eeai a?aiaiiia eee iinoiyiiia
eneeth/aiea ec iaueiu.
*oiau iaeaa/eoue naiei /eaiai niaethaeaiea i?aaee eioa?iie ieue, iaueia
niaea?aeaea nianoaaiioth aieith, aaea ei?iau, eicu e iaoeu n eo?aie
caaeaaeenue a no?iaii niioaaonoaee n i?aaeienaieyie Caeiia. E?iia oiai,
eaaeaeay iaueia iaycaoaeueii no?ieea aaith, /oiau auei aaea niaa?oeoue
?eooaeueiia i/enoeoaeueiia iiiaaiea. E?oiiua iaueiu iiaee iicaieeoue
naaa niaea?aeaiea aeooiaiuo o/eeeu aeey eco/aiey Oi?u e Oaeioaea e
iiaeaioiaee ?aaaeiia
Ecaiaiea e “*a?iay Nia?oue”
Iinea e?anoiauo iioiaeia ia aa?aaa ia/aeenue aiiaiey iianaianoii. Eo
ecaiiyee oeaeuie iaueiaie. A 1290 aiaeo anai aa?ayi – 16.000 /aeiaae –
auei i?eeacaii iieeiooue Aiaeeth. Oieueei a 17 aaea oai niiaa ia/aee
iiyaeyoueny aa?aeneea iaueiu. A 1306 aiaeo aa?ae auee ecaiaiu ec
O?aioeee.
Aiiaieyi, eae i?aaeei, i?aaeoanoaiaaee iaaeiaiey a ?eooaeueiuo oaeenoaao
e aioeaa?aeneea aieiaiey. Ea?ay ia yoeo iano?iaieyo, ianoiua i?aaeoaee,
ai?iaeneea iaaeno?aou e aiaaoua eoioeu noa?aeenue ecaaaeoueny io
?inoiaueeia-aa?aaa, eioi?ui iie oniaee neeueii caaeieaeaoue, a caiaeii e
?ani?aaeoueny n iaaeaeaoaeueiuie eiieo?aioaie. Caeanue, eae e a ?aoaiee
aeiionoeoue aa?aaa a oio eee eiie ai?iae aeea caiyoee oi?aiaeae e
?inoiaue/anoaii, aeaaioth ?ieue ea?aee yeiiiie/aneea eioa?anu.
A 14 aaea no?aoiia aaaenoaea ia?ooeeinue ia Aa?iio: ia/aeanue yieaeaiey
/oiu. N 1348 ii 1350 aiaeu aieaciue oianea ieeeeiiu aeeciae – o?aoue
ianaeaiey.
A iineieueeo enoeiiuo i?e/ei aaaenoaey ieeoi ia ciae, aeeoaee anao
ioaa/aiiuo /oiie no?ai ooo aea iaaeieee ai anai /oaeano?aioeaa,
iooaoanoaaiieeia, e, eiia/ii aea, /eaiia aaeeinoaaiiiai iao?enoeaineiai
iaiueoeinoaa, – aa?aaa. Ethaee aa?eee, /oi aa?aeneea iaueiu inoyo ca
aeanyoeeaoey aiiaiee, io?aaeyy eieiaeoeu e enoi/ieee.
Ii ia?a oiai, eae yieaeaiey oe?eeanue, ia?aeeioaoenue ec Eniaiee e
Eoaeee ia naaa? – io Aiaeee aei Iieueoe, – aieaa 300 aa?aeneeo iauei
iiaeaa?aeinue iaiaaeaieth, ouny/e aa?aaa auee niaeaeaiu o iici?iuo
noieaia eee oaeou. Ec aa?iaineeo eiyaeanoa auee ecaiaiu ii/oe ana
aa?aeneea iaueiu.
Iinea oiai, eae a eiioea 15 aaea aa?ae Eniaiee e Ii?ooaaeee auee
iinoaaeaiu ia?aae auai?ii: ecaiaiea eee ianeeuenoaaiiia e?auaiea,
?aniaeenue naiua auniei?acaeoua aa?aeneea iaueiu ia Eaa?eeneii
iieoino?iaa. Aa?ae auee auioaeaeaiu aai iieeiooue. Ecaiaiea aa?aeneeo
iauei i?iaeieaeaeinue a Aa?iia aieioue aei eiioea 19 aaea. wmetafile8?
??E????????????????O?“0???ue???????????-??
???u??????????”????-????u? ??????????I?MS Sans
Serif?II???-????????
Нашли опечатку? Выделите и нажмите CTRL+Enter
