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Introduction
The goal work is dedicated to the English grammar I hope my work will
the process of teaching and learning grammar fun and exciting for
students, also want to make teaching grammar as easy as possible by
providing you with all tools heeded to give students a rich and
enjoyable experience.
Grammar becomes exciting and dynamic when you bring the real world into
your classroom and bring your class out into the world. The aim of
investigation.
1) To acquire a terminology for discussing sentence correctness and
effectiveness
2) To look for subjects and verbs when puzzling out the meaning of
difficult sentences.
3) To understand how structure clues help identify parts of speech
4) To recognize participles, gerunds, and infinitives and use them to
improve sentences
To study the structure of the simple sentence, to make the process of
learning grammar understandable.
One of the main tasks of qualification work is the saving private tasks
of grammar, to show:
SV Patterns 1 Subject Verb
SVN Pattern 2 Subject Verb Predicate Nominative
SVA Pattern 3 Subject Verb Predicate adjective
SVO Pattern 4 Subject Verb Object
SVIO Pattern 5 Subject Verb Indirect object Direct object
SVOC Pattern 6 Subject Verb Direct object complement
The actually of the work. It is no doubt that student grow toward
maturity and independence of thought, as they progress trough the
grades.
Explains that, inspire of the great interest to a learning grammar, to
the problem sentences structure, there are some difficulties in learning
it. There is a great number of some foreign linguists.
In my work I tried to choose the best works of some foreign linguists as
Henry I Christ, Francis B. Connors and other grammarians
The novelty of the work. Introduce some of the newest and most
challenging concepts of modern grammar. It utilizes new terminology and
shows how teachers may begin working new definitions new explanations,
and new approaches into the regular language study. Yet the work is
arranged so that we can concentrate upon traditional elements.
The theoretical signifies of the work is concluded in comparison with
the nature languages Russian and Uzbek, the correlation between the
principle parts of the sentences which based on practical application.
1. Practical significance
The practical works are given in the work and tests, what can be used in
learning the structure of the sentences on the course of theoretical
grammar and at the practical classes of learning English.
The main recourse from where I have taken the material of my
qualification work are works done by Henry I Christ Modern English in
Action work done by Francis B Connors «New voyages in English» Material
from Internet and world encyclopedia.
1.1 The structure of the Simple Sentence
«Every sentence has a subject and a predicament».
Although you may not be like the school boy who wrote the preceding
explanation, you will probably welcome a review of grammar. Knowing the
names of eight parts of speech and about two dozen other terms will give
you tools for improving your writing and speaking. This chapter will
also provide a refresher course on fundamentals of sentence structure.
DIAGNOSTIC TEST 1.A Parts of the Simple Sentence.
Copy the italicized words in a column and number them 1 to25. Then,
using the abbreviations given below, indicate the use in the sentence of
each word. Write the abbreviations in a column to the right of the
words.
s.s.-simple subject d.o.-direct object
v.-verb i.o.-indirect speech
p.a.-predicate adjective o.p.-object of preposition
p.n.-predicate noun ap.-appositive
p.pr.-predicate pronoun a.n.-adverbial noun
1. The Pharos of Alexandria, a tall lighthouse, was a wonder of the
ancient world.
2. The next day the new neighbors brought us a dinner of spaghetti and
delicious sauce.
3. The son of Mr. Oliver, the corner grocer, gave me a piece of apple
pie with raisins in it.
4. In the morning the gypsies strung beads a round the neck of the
donkey and tied her tail with a bright red ribbon a yard long.
5. What kind of minerals can you find in the old lead mine?
6. The Buddha of Kamakura, a huge bronze statue, is considered one of
the most beautiful sights in Japan.
7. The imprint of the fossil shell in the rock was sharp and clear.
In the winter the rock garden looks lifeless and barren.
2. The main part
2.1 Subject, verb
A.1 SENTENCE A sentence expresses a complete thought. It contains a
subject and a predicate (or verb) either expresses or understood.
The nation’s largest herd of buffalo grazes in Custer State Park.
PREDICATE VERB The predicate verb makes a statement, asks a question, or
gives a command.
Statement Custer State Park borders on the Black Hills National Forest
in South Dakota.
Question Who was calamity Jane?
Command For an authentic view of the old West visit Custer State Park.
AUXILIARY VERB An auxiliary helps a verb to make a statement, ask a
question, or give a command.
The auxiliaries are: (be group) be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being;
(have group) has, have, had; (do group) do, does, did; (other) may,
might; can, could; shall, should; would, must. With auxiliaries a
complete verb can be two, or for words.
Have you ever eaten buffalo steak?
Income from the sale of buffalo meat has been partially paying for the
upkeep of Custer State Park.
You should not have been amazed at the sight of buffalo burger stands.
SIMPLE SUBJECT The simple subject answer the question «Who?» or «What?»
before the verb.
A simple subject is commonly a noun or a pronoun.
Winter temperatures in Alaska may fall to 60 degrees below zero.
(Temperatures answer the question «What my fall?»)
Fort Yukon has recorded temperatures of 100 degrees above zero in July.
(Fort Yukon answer the question «What has recorded?»)
Write the Alaskan Visitors Association for information about vacations
in Alaska. (You, understood, answer the question «Who write?»)
MODIFIER A modifier is a word or expression that makes clearer or limits
the meaning of another word.
For further help see Teacher’s Manual.
George Washington planned one of the first American canals. (the first
American canals is more limited than canals. The, first, and American
modify canals.)
Canalboats were drawn by sturdy mules. (Were drawn by sturdy mules is
different from were drawn. By sturdy mules modifies were drawn.)
Complete Subject The complete subject is the simple subject with its
modifiers.
A windmill on Nantucket still grinds cornmeal.
COMPLETE PREDIDICATE The complete predicate is the predicate verb its
modifiers and the words that complete its meaning.
Words which complete the meaning of a verb are complements or
completers. Ordinarily every word in a simple sentence belongs either to
the complete subject or the complete predicate.
Windmills were once a common sights along the Massachusetts coasts (The
vertical line separates the complete subject from the complete
predicate. The complete subject is underline once and the predicate verb
twice.)
The first copper coins in the colonies were minted by John Higley at
Simsbury, Connecticut.
1. Find the verb.
2. Ask «Who?» or «What?» before the verb. Your answer is the simple
subject.
3. Find all the words attached to the subject. This step gives you the
complete subject.
4. Everything else is the complete predicate.
PRACTICE 1 Expanding Complete Subject and Complete predicates.
Expand each of the italicized subjects and predicates by adding
colorful, exact modifiers.
Example: The rain came.
The prayed-for rain came with the crack of thunder and the persistent
tattoo of raindrops as big as marbles.
INVERTED ORDER A sentence is inverted when the verb, or part of it,
precedes the subject.
In most English sentences the subject precedes the verb.
Inverted order. Along the Hudson River are found reminders of our Dutch
heritage.
Reminders of our Dutch heritage are found along the Hudson River.
Was the first elementary school in the United States on Staten Island?
Natural order. The first elementary school in the United States was on
Staten Island.
THERE When there begins a sentence in invented order, it is not the
subject and does not modify anything.
There is never the subject and doesn`t add anything to the meaning.
Inverted order. There were English settlers in New England before the
Pilgrims.
Natural order English settlers were in New England before the Pilgrims.
OVERDOING THERE. Don’t overuse there.
Too frequent use of there is monotonous.
OTHER WORDS BEFORE SUBJECT Frequently a portion of the complete
predicate precedes the subject. Other words before subject In1889 the
first movie. Film was produced in America by Thomas A. Edison.
Natural order. The first movie film was produced in America by Thomas A.
Edison in 1889.
ARRANGEMENT FOR STILE Often a portion of the predicate verb can be
placed before the complete subject for emphasis, for joining the
sentence to the preceding sentence, or for improving the rhythm of the
passage in which it occurs.
(Use this device for emphasis only sparingly.)
Emphasis That will never forget. (I will never forget that.)
Sentence rhythm: Suddenly and without warning, the panther leaped
suddenly without warning upon the deer).
PRACTICE 2 Rearranging for stile
Rearrange each of the following sentences for increased emphasis or
improvement in sentence rhythm.
SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence has one subject and one predicate,
either or both of which may be compound.
Compound Subject: Seagoing cutthroats and thieves once hid along the
Carolina coast.
Compound predicate: Blackbeard tarred and caulked his boats in Oracoke
Inlet.
Compound Subject and Compound Predicate In 1718 Blackbeard and Srese
Bonnet blockaded Charleston and captured five ships.
PRACTICE 3 Finding Subject and Verbs
Copy the following sentences, arranging inverted sentences in their
natural order. Rearrange also those sentences that have any part of the
predicate before the subject. Then draw one line the under the predicate
verb. Separate the complete subject from the complete predicate with a
vertical line. Place all modifiers of the verb after the vertical line.
Example: During the Twenties was born the luxurious movie place.
The luxurious movie place was born during the Twenties.
MOVIE PALACES OF THE TWENTIES
1. In city after city there arose some of the most lavish building of
all time.
2. Can you visualize imitation Assyrian temples, Chinese pagodas,
Italian palaces?
3. Really, words cannot do justice to the magnificence of these
structures.
4. Highly ornamental and spacious were the colorful interiors.
5. In many theaters moonlit skies, twinkling stars, and drifting clouds
soothed the air – conditioned customers and transported them to another
world.
6. IN a few of these «atmospheric» paradises, special dawn and sunset
effect delighted the moviegoers.
7. Unbelievable was the word for these giant buildings.
8. The Roxy Theater in New York had 6214 seats and room for 110
musicians in the pit of the orchestra.
9. A huge carpet covered the rotunda and required the services of many
persons for maintenance.
10. Each evening the ushers had a changing-of-guard ceremony of
considerable intricacy and split-second precision.
11. Have these elaborate showpieces survived changing tastes and habits?
12. Unfortunately, most have been demolished and have been replaced with
supermarkets, garages, and parking lots.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
A word becomes a part of speech when its used in a sentence.
NOUN: A noun is a name.
Nouns name:
a. Persons, animals, places, things.
Many Americans have come to know the Hudson River throught the stories
of Washington Irving and the canvases of the Hudson River painters.
b. Collection or groups of persons, animals, or things (collective
nouns)
The council named a safety committee.
c. Qualities conditions, actions, processes, and ideas (abstract nouns)
The declaration of Independence upheld the right of life, liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness.
PRONOUN A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
Because a pronoun substitutes or stands in for a noun, it avoids
tiresome repetition of the noun. The word the pronoun refers to is its
antecedent.
In his tales Washington Irving peopled the Hudson valley with comic
Dutchmen, headless horsemen, and bowling gnomes. (His is used instead of
Washington Irving)
These are commonly used pronouns:
Speaker: I, me, mine, we, us, our, ours.
Person spoken to: you, your, yours.
Person or things spoken of: he, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they,
them, their, theirs.
Other pronouns: who, whom.
Several pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to other pronouns:
myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, itself, himself, herself,
themselves,
Some pronouns are formed by joining some, any, every, and no to body,
one and thing: somebody, someone, something, anybody, nothing.
All, another, any, both, each, either, few, many, neither, one, other,
several, some, this, these, that, those, which, whose, and what are
usually pronouns when they stand alone but are modifiers, not pronouns,
when they modify nouns.
VERB Verbs make statement about persons, places, or things, ask
questions, or give commands.
Statements: Some historians still question Captain John Smith’s account
of his adventures.
Question: Did Pocahontas actually rescue him?
Command: Read Marshall Fishwick`s article «Was John Smith a Liar?» in
American Heritage.
ADJECTIVE An adjective is a word that describes or limits a noun or
pronoun.
An adjective usually answers one of these questions: «Which?» «What kind
of» «How many?» «How much?» A, an, and the, the most common adjectives,
are also called «articles». Mountains are climbing, study book, Boston
2003
By 1700 there were 80,000 settlers in the low-lying areas along the New
England coast and in the great central valley of Connecticut and
Massachusetts.
The massive oak door opened.
The subject and predicate, placed on a straight line, are separated by a
short vertical line. Adjectives are placed on slant lines under the
words they modify.
ADVERB An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an
adverb.
Adverbs not only answer the questions «When?» «Where?» «How?’ «Why?»
«How much?» and «How often?» but also help to ask questions.
Where and when did Oliver Hazard Perry defeat the British navy?
Many adverbs and some adjectives end in ly.
To the tune of a lively polka the dancers whirled merrily about the
hall.
(Lively is an adjective modifying polka. Merrily is an adverb modifying
whirled.)
The extremely important meeting was quite poorly attended.
Adverbs are placed on slant lines under the words they modify. The
adverb extremely modifies the adjective important. The adverb poorly
modifies the verb was attended. The adverb quite modifies the adverb
poorly.
If two or more words are used as a single unit, check the dictionary to
see if the group is given as a separate entry. If so, diagram the group
as though it were one word. Examples of such groups are Bay of Fundy,
Siamese cat, and post office.
PREPOSITION A preposition shows the relation of the noun or pronoun
following it to some other word in the sentence.
About seventy words may be used as prepositions: about, above, across,
after, against, along, among, etc.
The story of Los Angeles begins with a Portuguese sea captain in the
employ of Spain.
A preposition may be two or more words.
According to by means of in regard to on account of
Ahead of by way of in spite of out of
Because of in front of instead of up of
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION The noun or pronoun after a preposition is the
object of the preposition.
In 1542 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed up the west coast of Mexico to
San Pedro Bay.
PHRASE A phrase is a group of related words not containing a subject and
a predicate.
Phrases may be used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE consists of a preposition and its object, which may
or may not have modifiers.
A prepositional phrase is ordinary used like an adjective or an adverb.
One of California’s most prosperous missions was built near the present
site of Los Angeles.
A preposition is placed on a slant line, and its object is put on a
horizontal line joined to the slant line. Nouns and pronouns in the
possessive case (see California’s) are used like adjectives.
PRACTICE 4 Identifying Parts of speech.
Diagram the following sentences.
OR Copy the following sentences, skipping every other line. Underline
the simple subject once and the predicate verb twice. Write adj. over
every adjective and adv. Over every adverb. Enclose prepositional
phrases in parentheses.
Example: Berea College is located in a beautiful town in central
Kentucky.
BEREA COLLEGE
1. Visitors at the college walk along tree-shaded lanes to the various
workshops of the college.
2. Many college industries operate successfully.
3. Students work at various activities for ten hours during each weak.
4. The profitable enterprises help with college expenses.
5. A beautiful hotel in town is owned by the college.
6. Student waitresses serve in the cheerful dining room.
7. Other students work busily at administrative jobs in the hotel.
8. A dairy farm is operated by the students.
9. Excellent baked goods are distributed throughout a large area.
10. Clever toys are sold in local shops.
11. Furniture of superior quality is turned out by student craftsmen.
12. Cooperative education has prospered for a century at Berea College.
CONJUNCTION A connects words or groups of words.
Conjunction is from conjugate, a Latin word meaning «to join together»
Conjunctions, unlike prepositions, do not have objects.
A natural ice mine in Pennsylvania forms ice in the spring and summer
but never in the winter months.) Mountains are climbing, study book,
Boston 2003
Before the Revolutionary War, Kentucky and Tennessee were known to the
Indians as the Middle Ground or the Dark and Bloody Ground. (And
connects Kentucky with Tennessee. Or connects as the Middle Ground with
the Dark and Bloody Ground. And connects dark with bloody.)
1. Shell heaps, village sites, and stone implements were left in the
eastern United States by prehistoric Asiatic migrants.
The conjunction and is placed on a broken line between the words it
connects. The x indicates that a conjunction is understood.
2. For several generations their descendants lived along the riverbanks
and subsisted on fish, small game, roots, and nuts.
The conjunction and connects the verbs lived and subsisted. The
prepositional phrases for several generations are attached to the single
predicate line because it modifies both verbs. Notice the diagramming of
the four objects of the same preposition.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions used in pairs are called paired conjunctions, or
correlatives: both… and; either… or; neither… nor; not only… but also.
Both archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated about these
people.
Neither the wheel nor the horse was known to the prehistoric Indians.
Neither and nor are correlative conjunctions and are placed between the
words they connect. Notice how neither is joined to nor.
INTERJECTION An interjection is a word or form of speech that expresses
strong or sudden feeling.
An interjection has no grammatical connection with the rest of the
sentence.
Look! This Indian pipe is made in the form of a man’s figure. Oh, don’t
touch it!
A WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH to find the part of speech of a
word, always ask you the question «What does the word do in the
sentence?»
PART OF SPEECH JOB TO DO
Verb states, asks, commands
Noun, pronoun names
Adjective, adverb modifies, clarifies
Preposition introduces, shows-relationships
Conjunction connects
Interjection exclaims
Some words may be used as a number of different parts of speech.
Noun: There’s a well in Uncle George’s backyard.
Verb: Tears sometimes well up in Mrs. Simpson’s eyes when she talks of
her dead dog.
Adjective: Don’t you feel well today?
Adverb: Stir the pudding well or it will scorch.
PRACTICE 5 Recognizing Words as Different Parts of Speech
Give orally the part of speech of each italicized word.
1. Bud waited within. 2. Bud waited within the house.
3. Oil your skates. 4. Put oil on your skates.
5. I’ll take those. 6. I’ll take those apples.
7. Birds eat insects. 8. Birds eat insect pests.
9. We walked across the ice. 10. We walked across.
11. We’ll paper the kitchen next. 12. Mother chose a green paper.
13. We must sand the icy walks. 14. We used sand from the yard.
15. Marie likes her amethyst ring. 16. Her favorite stone is an
amethyst.
17. I’ll take that cantaloupe. 18. That’s the one.
19. The story is sad but true. 20. No one knows the truth but me.
PRACTICE 6 Using a word as Different Parts of Speech.
Write sentences in which you use each of the following word as the
different parts of speech named after it. Consult a dictionary if you
need help.
1. flower-adjective, noun, verb.
2. on-adverb, preposition
3. tan-adjective, noun, verb
4. beyond – adverb, preposition
5. off – adverb, preposition
6. this-adjective, pronoun
7. neither-adjective, conjunction, pronoun
8. down-adverb, noun, preposition, verb
9. round – adjective, noun, preposition, verb
10. fair – adjective, adverb, noun
STRUCTURE CLUES
Three excellent clues to part of speech are (1) position in the
sentence, (2) endings, and (3) signal words.
SENTENCE PATTERNS
Verbs. The verb occurs in an important position in the structure of a
sentence. What you already know about English sentence structure will
help you identify verbs.
The basketball player-down the court.
Where did you – the camera?
Any word you supply is a verb: ran, dribbled; leave, put.
Of course many words that can be used as verb are also used as other
parts of speech – for example, fall down (verb) a sudden fall (noun).
Example the entire sentence before trying to determine part of speech.
Nouns. Most nouns make a meaningful pattern with is or are at the
beginning of a sentence.
Desk is friends are
Nouns often precede verbs: trees grow, student read, Jim hopes.
Of course many words that can be used as nouns are used also as other
parts of speech-for example, brown thread, (noun), thread the needle
(verb). A word is probable a noun if it completes a pattern like one of
these:
– cannot live in polluted waters.
Near the – we found a–with a–
Adjectives: Most adjectives readily fit into three common position in
the sentence: the normal, the predicate, and the appositive positions. A
word is probably an adjective if it completes one of the following
patterns:
Normal position Two–boys caught a–fish in the – stream.
Predicate Susan is usually –.
Appositive position: The coach, – and–, spoke proudly to his winning
team.
Adverbs. Most words that fit into more than one place in a sentence are
adverbs. Emphasis frequently determines placement.
Cheerfully the hostess greeted her arriving guests.
The hostess greeted her arriving guests cheerfully.
The hostess cheerfully greeted her arriving guests.
Carl lifted his hand – and moved his rook.
Or: Carl–lifted his hand and moved his rook.
ENDINGS
Certain suffixes and other endings provide additional help in indicating
part of speech. A suffix is an addition to a word that helps create a
new word. It doesn`t guarantee that a word will be a certain part of
speech, but it does provide a clue.
Verbs. Common verb suffixes are ate, en, fy, ize, and ish: pollinate,
strengthen, magnify, realize, admonish.
Common verb endings, which may occur with the preceding suffixes, are
ing, ed, d, and t: was trying, hoped, told, and slept.
Nouns. Most nouns have a plural form, usually ending in`s and a
possessive form ending in`s or s`
Singular desk Singular possessive desk’s
Friend friend’s
Plural desks Plural possessive desks`
Friends friends`
Certain suffixes are frequently used for nouns.
– ance (ence) reliance, audience – ion action
– ation nomination – ling weakling
– craft handicraft – ment abridgment
– dom freedom – ness politeness
– ee absentee – or creditor
– er officer – ry rivalry
– ess waitress – ship friendship
– ette launderette – th length
– ics ethics – tude fortitude
Adjectives. Certain suffixes are frequently used for adjectives.
– able (ible) portable – fic terrific
– ac (ic) aquatic – ful careful
– al (ical) inimical – ile infantile
– an (ian) Bostonian – ish boyish
– ant (ent) evident – ive passive
– ary military – less careless
– ed wicked – like homelike
– en oaken – ous generous
– ern northern – some loathsome
– esque grotesque – y cheery
Adverbs. Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to an adjective: free,
freely; strict, strictly; certain, certainly. (Ly, however, is not a
sure sign, for many adjectives are formed by adding ly to a noun: king,
kingly; time, timely. The final test of part of speech is use in a
sentence.)
Common adverb suffixes are wise, ward, and long: likewise, home-ward,
and sidelong. (But what part of speech is sidelong in a sidelong
glance?) The suffix is no guarantee of part of speech. Always test use
in the sentence.
Signal words
Certain words signal that particular parts of speech will follow.
Words That Signal Verbs. Auxiliaries like may, can, will, could signal
verbs. Words like he, it, or they also signal verbs. Read the word
aloud, placing he, it, or they before it, and if the expression makes
sense, the word can be used as a verb.
EXAMPLE
prep. n. adj. adj. n. v. prep. adj. n. conj. v.
In 1811 the first steamboat sailed down the Mississippi and inaugurated
adj. adj. n. prep. n.
a new era in navigation.
STEAMBOATS ON THE MISSISSIPPI
A.1. The New Orleans left an enthusiastic crowd in Pittsburgh and headed
into the Ohio River.
2. The boat stopped frequently along the way and received the
congratulations of settlers along the river.
3. Most people still doubted the practicality of the steamboat.
4. After a suspenseful delay the boat successfully sailed through the
dangerous rapids in the river at Louisville.
5. After this success the crew endured severe earthquakes and pursuit by
warlike Indians.
6. Roots, stumps, and channels shifted during the turbulent quakes.
7. A fire destroyed part of the forward cabin.
8. Despite the setbacks, the New Orleans finally reached Natchez.
B. 1. The New Orleans later foundered on a stump.
2. Other steamboats soon appeared and dominated river traffic.
3. Great expense was lavished on cabins and fittings.
4. Captains took pride in the speed of their vessels.
5. Steamboat races were officially discouraged but were unofficially
encouraged.
6. Boiler explosions plagued operations from the earliest days.
7. In early years the boats were constructed without plans.
8. The famous Robert E. Lee was built by this rule-of-thumb method.
SUGGESTION FOR STYLE IMPROVEMENT
SPECIFIC NOUNS Use vigorous, specific nouns.
We surprised a bird and an animal near the pond.
2. Avoid lazy, vague, «thingy» substitutes for clear thinking.
Indefinite: in the old trunk we discovered three things.
Definite: In the old trunk we discovered a bettered canteen, a letter
from a Georgia lieutenant, and a Confederate bank note.
POWERFUL VERBS Seek colorful, exact verbs.
Nouns and verbs provide the sinews of the sentence.
Freddie made a face when he tasted the cough medicine.
CONTROLLED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Use adjectives and adverbs for
specific effects. Do not pile unnecessary detail upon detail by
overusing these helpful words.
Ordinarily use a colorful noun (miser) instead of a weak adjective plus
a general noun (greedy person). Ordinarily use a vigorous verb (scamper)
instead of a weak adverb plus general verb (run hastily).
WORD FOR PHRASE Use a phrase only when the single word will add neither
additional information nor desired emphasis
Ordinarily say speedily, not with great speed; the red-brick house, not
the house of red brick.
PRACTICE 8 Improving sentences.
A. For each general underlined noun substitute a more specific noun.
1. For dessert we had fruit and cake.
2. In the drawer there were four things
3. At the nursery Dad bought a tree, a shrub, and a flower
4. My brother has three unusual pets.
5. During gym one squad played one game; the second squad played an
other
B. Using the suggestions for improving style, make the following
sentences more vigorous and concise.
1. The puppy with the brown fur walked unsteadily along the hall
2. During our vacation in Arizona we enjoyed skies of blue and days with
sun.
3. Mel was not a cowardly person, but he was very much afraid of
injections.
4. In Holland the shoes of wood protect against the fields of mud
5. Modern very tall buildings often look like peaks of glass.
WORD WITH DOUBLE ROLES Some words perform two jobs at the same time.
Have you ever seen my cousin’s collection of seashells?
Cousin’s plays a double role. It modifies collection like an adjective.
It is modified by my like a noun. It performs both jobs at the same
time. There are six common groups of words that play double roles.
1. The possessive noun acts like a noun and an adjective. It is
diagramed like an adjective.
My young brother’s laughter is a happy sound in our house. (Brother `s
modifies laughter: my and young modify brother’s.).
2. The possessive pronoun acts like a pronoun and an adjective. It is
diagramed like an adjective. These are common possessive pronouns: my,
our, ours, his-before a noun-her, its, and their.
The old soldiers took off their hats as the flag went by. (Their
modifies hats like an adjective; it has an antecedent, soldiers, like a
pronoun)
3. The adverbial noun acts like a noun and an adverb. It is a diagramed
like an adverbial prepositional phrase.
4. The participle acts like a verb and an adjective.
5. The gerund acts like a verb and a noun.
6. The infinitive acts like a verb and a noun, a verb and an adjective,
or a verb and an adverb.
PRACTICE 9 Studying words of Double Function.
Which words in the following sentences play a double role? Explain.
1. My dad waited two years for his present job.
2. An old dog’s loyalty is a priceless gift.
3. His father worked in a manufacturing plant.
4. On a quiet Saturday Mr. Parker can match two average days’ output of
work.
5. Ted fell seven feet from the top of the ladder but was unhurt.
OTHER PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
Every sentence has a back a backbone–the simple subject and the
predicate verb. It may also have, as part of the backbone, a complement
or completer of the verb. Five complements are the predicate adjective,
the predicate noun, the predicate pronoun, the direct object, and the
indirect object.
2.2 Subject Verb, Predicate Nominative
PREDICATE NOUN AND PREDICATE PRONOUN A predicate noun or predicate
pronoun answer the question «Who?» or «What?» after a linking verb.
The predicate noun or predicate pronoun, except after a negative, means
the same as the subject. (Predicate nouns and predicate pronouns are
also called «predicate nominatives.»)
The area within five hundred miles of Kansas City is the tornado
incubator of the United States. (Area=incubator)
A fishing rod is a stick with a hook at one end and a fool at the other.
– Samuel Johnson (fishing rod=stick)
Four of our first five Presidents were Virginians.
Virginians, the predicate noun, answers the question «What?» after the
verb and means the same as the subject. The line slants toward the
subject.
Certain verbs in the passive voice become linking verbs and may take
predicate nouns or predicate pronouns.
Examples: are appoint, call, choose, consider, elect, name, and vote.
The Spanish colonies have been called the head quarters for a treasure
hunt.
2.3 Subject, Verb, Predicate Adjective
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE A predicate adjective completes a linking verb and
describes the subject.
Predicate adjectives are frequently used after forms of the verb be,
become, grow, taste, seem, appear, look, feel, smell and sound.
The Zuni Indians of the New Mexico are famous for their rain dances.
Because of the Indian drums the settlers grew more and more uneasy.
The predicate adjective uneasy completes the predicate and describes the
subject. The conjunction and joins the two adverbs more and more.
Not every adjective in the predicate is a predicate adjective.
Our coach is a keen student of baseball (Keen modifies the predicate
noun student and is not a predicate adjective.)
ADJECTIVE POSITION Most adjectives readily fit into three common
positions in the sentence.
Normal position: An English chemist provided the first funds for the
Smithsonian Institution. (The italicized adjectives precede the nouns
they modify.)
Predicate position: The Smithsonian Institution is unique in the
diversity of its collections (the italicized adjective follows the
linking verb see)
Appositive position: Its American gold-coin collection, outstanding for
its completeness, fascinates many visitors.
PRACTICE 10 Using Complements in Sentences.
Put each of the following verbs into a sentence with a predicate
adjective, a predicate noun, or a predicate pronoun, Label each
complement p.a., p.n., or p.pr.
am became looks tasted were elected
is felt smells has been appointed was named
will be grew sounded are considered were voted
2.4 Subject, Verb, Object
The direct object answers the question «Who?» or «What?» after an action
verb.
Samuel Slater introduced the cotton mill to the United States.
(Introduced what? Cotton mill.)
Like the English mill owners, Slater employed children in his factory.
(Employed whom? Children.)
1. For his workers he built the first Sunday school in New England.
Sunday School, the direct object, is separated from the verb by a short
vertical line.
2. The course of study included reading, writing, arithmetic, and
religion.
Notice the compound direct object on horizontal lines.
PRACTICE 11 Recognizing Other Parts of the Sentence.
Diagram the following sentences.
OR Copy following sentences, skipping every other line. Underline the
simple or compound subject once and every predicate verb twice. Put
parentheses around prepositional phrases. Write p.a. (predicate
adjective), p, n.) Predicate noun), d.o. (direct object) above every
word used in one of these ways.
(In 1900) an obscure writer created a work (of lasting fame).
THE WIZARD OF OZ
A. 1. (After failures in several different fields,) L. Frank Baum wrote.
The Wizard of Oz.
B. 1. Twice Baum announced the end (of the series)
2.5 Subject Verb, Indirect Object, Direct Object
When a direct object (answering the question «What?» or «Whom?») is
used, an indirect object is sometimes used also, answering the question
«To whom?» or «For whom?».
The indirect object usually comes between the verb and the direct
object. Placing to or for before an indirect object does not usually
change the sense.
The Scarecrow gave Dorothy directions. (Gave to whom? Dorothy.)
Dad built me a pigeon coop. (Build for? Me)
At the statue of Emmeline Labiche, Aunt Sally told Shirley and me the
legend of Evangeline.
Shirley and me, the compound indirect object of told, are diagramed like
the compound object of a preposition. Shirley and me answer the question
«Told to whom?»
PRACTICE 12. Picking Out Direct and Indirect Objects
Read each sentence aloud. Identify direct and indirect objects.
WHAT’S IN NAME?
1. After an accident, John Smith dutifully offered the policeman his
services as a witness.
2. «Tell me your name.»
3. Smith gave the officer his name.
4. The officer groaned. «Do me a favor. Give me your real name.
5. «I’ve told you the truth.»
6. After three futile tries Smith told the officer, Napoleon Bonaparte.»
7. «That’s better,» said the policeman. «People have given me that Smith
nonsense too often.»
PRACTICE 13 Using Direct and Indirect Objects Effectively
By using indirect objects and eliminating useless words, combine each
pair of sentences into one good sentence.
Example: Yankee peddlers sold tin ware, pins, gingham, and ribbons. They
sold these to housewives.
Yankee peddlers sold housewives tin ware pins, gingham, and ribbons.
1. Uncle Ted sent a carved chess set from the Black Forest. He sent it
to me.
2. In shop I am making bookcase. I am making it for my brother.
3. Aunt Pauline wanted me to have a seed necklace. She sent it to me
from Puerto Rico.
4. Send the directions. Please let me have them before Saturday.
5. Dad built three new birdhouses. He built them for the wrens.
6. Can you make a poster? Will you make one for us for Book Week?
PRACTICE 14. Using Direct and Indirect Objects in Sentences W
Select five of the following and in good sentences use each as a direct
object and as an indirect object
Example: Sally and him
We invited Sally and him to the Bob Cummings Play at the summer
playhouse. (Direct object)
We sent Sally and him tickets for the third row. (Indirect object)
him them her and her friend
her him and Sandy my sister and him
us her and him her and Alice
me Mother and me her and me
APPOSITIVE An appositive is a word or expression which explains the noun
or pronoun it follows and names the same person, place, or thing.
Baseball, a popular American game, developed from One Old Cat, a
favorite in colonial times. (Baseball= game; One Old Cat=Favorite)
An appositive and a predicate noun are similar. The difference is that a
verb connects the subject and the predicate noun, while an appositive
follows a word directly and is generally set off by commas.
Appositive: The Homestake, this country’s largest gold mine, is in Lead,
South Dakota.
Predicate noun: The Homestake is this country’s largest gold mine.
Bloody Basin, the locate of several Zane Grey novels, is still a
primitive area.
Locale is in apposition with Bloody Basin. An appositive is placed after
the word it explains and is enclosed in parentheses. The and of several
Zane Grey novels modify locale.
ADVERBIAL NOUN Nouns which indicate distance, time, weight, or value are
often used as adverbs.
The ill-fated Shenandoah was almost three city blocks long. (How 25000
long? Blocks.)
Before its crash in 1925 this famous dirigible had flown 25,000 miles.
(How much? Miles.)
1. Last Summer Paul, Chris, and I rode a mule-drawn barge on the
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. Summer, a noun used as an adverb, modified
the verb rode. It is diagramed like the object of a preposition.
2. The square, wooden houses of prosperous New England sea captains were
usually three stories high.
Stories, a noun used as an adverb, modify the predicate adjective high.
PRACTICE 15. Identifying Parts of the Simple Sentence
Diagram the following sentences.
OR Copy the following sentences, Skipping every other line. Underline
every simple or compound subject once and every predicate verb twice.
Enclose every prepositional phrase in parentheses. Identify all forms
listed below. Write the abbreviation above the word.
p.a.–predicate i.o.–indirect adjective
p.n.–predicate noun o.p.–object of preposition
p.pr.–predicate pronoun ap.–appositive
d.o.–direct object a.n.–adverbial noun
HE FIGHT FOR PURE FOODS AND DRUGS
A. 1. The medicine man is a stock character (in many Western movies and
novels)
2. (According to the salesman) his «snake oil» could cure any ailment.
3. His comical behavior has given modern movie-goers many laughs.
4. (In a serious vein) he symbolizes the lack (of protection) (for the
citizens) (of yesterday)
5. Lack (of uniform legislation) and inadequate protection endangered
the heals (of all Americans) sixty years ago.
6. Foods and drugs were not regulated (for the welfare) (of all)
7. Sellers (of medicines) made impossible claims.
8. Foods were packaged (under unsanitary conditions.)
9. Weights were dishonest.
10. Narcotics (in medicines) caused drug addiction.
B. 1. Expensive foods were adulterated (with cheaper substitutes)
2. (For proof) (of the genuineness) (of his product) one manufacturer
put a dead bee (in every jar) (of artificial «honey»)
3. Harmful chemical preservatives were indiscriminately added (to foods)
4. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, chief chemist (of the Department of
Agriculture), was a crusader (for regulation)
5. His stand was un popular (with many groups) (of people)
6. Each year new opponents attacked Dr. Wiley.
7. He had a powerful ally, President Theodore Roosevelt.
8. (After many difficulties) a bill was passed and was sent (To the
President)
9. (In 1906) the bill became a low and opened a new era (in public
health)
10. (IN 1956) (on the fiftieth anniversary) (of the law’s passage) Dr.
Wiley’s portrait was placed (on a commemorative stamp)
MASTERY TEST 1B Parts of the Simple Sentence
MEDIAN 16.8
Copy the italicized words s a column and number them 1 to 25. Then,
using the following abbreviations, indicate the use in the sentence of
each word. Write the abbreviations in a column to the right of the
words.
s.s.–simple subject d.o.–direct object
v.–verb i.o.–indirect object
p.a.–predicate adjective o.p.–object of preposition
p.n.–predicate noun ap.–appositive
p.pr.–predicate pronoun a.n.–adverbial noun
1. The chief source of lead is galena, a gray mineral.
2. Were elephants ever native to America?
3. The next week Ralph, an excellent pitcher, became a member of the
team.
4. Is that frisky hamster a pet of yours?
5. A few minutes later the sky was growing red and purple and just a
little darker.
6. For Easter Grandmother Lane bought Susie a new red bonnet with a
feather on it.
7. Tom and Huck adopted Joe as a member of their club and taught him all
their secret signs.
8. Betsy, a skilled mimic, reenacted the scene with deadly realism.
When your test has been marked, turn to the first page of the book and
following directions, prepare your achievement graph for the year. Then
enter on the graph your mark in Test 1. During the year enter on this
graph your mark in every mastery test.
2.6 Subject, Verb, Direct Object, Complement
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT An adjective complement completes the verb and
refers to the direct object.
It is the usually a noun or an adjective.
The juniors chose Sam Ackerson class orator. (Chose Sam Ackerson what?
Orator. The noun orator refers to the direct object; Sam Ackerson.)
The executioner found Sydney Carton ready. (Found Sydney Carton what?
Ready. The adjective ready refers to the direct object, Sydney Carton.)
Do not mistake a sentence with a indirect object for a sentence with an
objective complement.
Ellen made Dad a knitted tie. (Made for Dad a tie. Dad is the indirect
object; tie is the direct object.)
Ellen made Dad proud of her. (Made Dad what? Proud. Dad is the direct
object; proud is the objective complement.)
A verb which takes an objective complement in the active voice may in
the passive voice take a predicate noun or a predicate adjective.
Active
Objective complement: The basketball team chose Frank captain.
Passive
Predicate noun: Frank was chosen captain by the basketball team.
Active
Objective complement: Dad has painted our boat maroon.
Predicate adjective: Our boat have been painted maroon by Dad.
The active voice with the objective complement is usually more vivid and
forceful than the passive.
1. Mrs. Hollis considers the dictionary the most valuable reference
book.
The objective complement reference book completes the verb and refers to
the direct object, dictionary. The line slants toward the object.
2. Years of care and anxiety had made George Washington homesick for
Mount Vernon and eager for a quiet retirement.
Homesick eager are a compound objective complement. They complete the
verb had made and refers to the direct object, George Washington.
PRACTICE 16. Using the Objective Complement
Change each of the following sentences in the passive voice to a
sentence in the active voice. Use an objective complement in each.
Underline the objective complement.
Example: I was made afraid by the sudden noise.
The sudden noise made me afraid.
1. Sally was elected president by the junior class.
2. Sue Johnson was voted most popular by the senior class.
3. The brown grass was sprayed green by Dad.
4. Jim is considered a great with by his friends.
5. The pink dogwood is considered by many people the most people the
most beautiful flowering tree.
RETAINED OBJECT A verb which takes an indirect object in the active
voice may in the passive voice retain a direct object (called the
«retained object»).
Active voice, with indirect object: Mr. Tompkins gave the new pitcher
his instructions (Instructions is the direct object; pitcher is the
indirect object.)
Passive voice with retained object: The new pitcher was given his
instructions by Mr. Tompkins. (Instructions is the retained object)
The active voice with an indirect object is usually preferable to the
passive voice with a retained object. Where the doer of the action is
unknown or unimportant, however, the retained object is a useful device.
For the prevention of scurvy each British sailor was allotted a daily
ration of lemon juice. (Ration is the retained object)
The astronaut was an awarded a medal for his achievements.
The retained object medal is separated from the verb by a wavy line.
RETAINED INDIRECT OBJECT An indirect object may also be retained in the
passive voice.
Active voice: They gave the winner of the spelling bee a prize.
Passive voice: A prize was given the winner of the spelling bee. (Winner
is a retained indirect object. The passive does not emphasize the doer
of the action.)
Two hamsters were given him for Christmas.
The retained indirect object him is diagramed like a regular indirect
object.
PRACTICE 17. Identifying Parts of the Simple Sentence D
Diagram the following sentences.
OR Copy the following sentences, skipping every other line. Underline
every simple or compound subject once and every predicate verb twice.
Enclose every prepositional phrase in parentheses. Identify all forms
listed below. Write the abbreviation above the word.
p.a.–predicate adjective ap.–appositive
p.n.–predicate noun a.n.–adverbial noun
p.pr.–predicate pronoun o.c.–objective complement
d.o.–direct object r.o.–retained object
i.o.–indirect objects r.i.o.–retained indirect object
o.p.–object of preposition
1 We found Scott uneasy (about his examination).
2. The boys were given excellent advice (for the selection) (of a
college).
3. Heavy insulation will make the doghouse warm and cozy.
4. The princes in «The Lady or the Tiger?» is given two choices.
5. Dad painted the living room a light shade (of green)
6 A reward was offered her.
PRACTICE 18 Using Retained Objects
Change each of the following sentences with indefinite subjects into
sentences with retained objects.
Example: They gave us three suggestions for starting a coin collection.
We were given three suggestions for starting a coin collection.
1. They gave the pirates five minutes for their decision.
2. they told us nothing about the change in regulations
3. They gave us a week for filing final applications.
4. They awarded Perry Mason’s client a substantial judgment.
5. They sent us folders on careers.
PRACTICE 19 Changing Passive to Active
Change each of the following sentences with retained object to forceful
sentences in the active voice.
Example: I was given a pearl necklace by Aunt Martha.
Aunt Martha gave me a pearl necklace.
1. I was told my favorite story about my father’s childhood escapades by
my grandmother.
2. Johnny was sent a real Swiss cowbell by Uncle Ted.
3. I was given some foreign currency by Mrs. Walker.
4. Paul was done a favor by Dan Abrams.
5. The guests were played a lively folk tune by the orchestra.
VERBAL: PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, INFINITIVES
VERBAL A verbal is a verb form used like an adjective, a noun, or an
adverb.
Like verbs, verbal can have complements and adverbial modifiers. They
cannot, however, be predicate verbs.
NOT A SENTENCE The flag still is flying over Fort McHenry. Modern
English in Action, Henry I. Christ, DC Heath and company, Boston 2001
A SENTENCE The flag was still flying over Fort McHenry.
A SENTENCE Francis Scott Key saw the flag still flying over Fort
McHenry.
PARTICIPLE A participle is a form of the verb that is used only as an
adjective
A participle is part adjective and part verb. Many participles end in
ing, ed, or d. The participles of the verb carry are carrying, carried,
having carried, being carried, having been carried.
To find out what word a participle modifies, ask the question «Who?» or
«What?» about it.
Stately mansions built by whaling captain line the cobblestone streets
of Nantucket. (What were built? Mansions. Built modifies mansions.)
Among the houses lining the elm-shaded street are three large ones known
as the «Three Bricks» (Lining is a participle modifying houses; known is
a participle modifying ones.)
1. A biography written by Parson Weems established Francis Marion as the
Robin Hood of the Revolution.
A participle is placed partly on a slanting line, like an adjective, and
partly on a horizontal line, like a verb. As an adjective, written
modifies biography; as a verb, it is modified by the adverb phrase by
Parson Weems.
2. Having served his country as a regular officer for five years, Marion
began his career as a partisan in 1780.
The participle having served as an adjective modifies Marion; as a verb,
it takes a direct object, country, and is modified by two adverbs
phrases, as a regular officer and for five years.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE A participle and the words that modify it or complete
its meaning form a participial phrase.
Using his experience as an Indian fighter and his knowledge of the
gloomy cypress swamps, Marion shrewdly planned his raids. (The
participial phrase contains two prepositional phrases, as an Indian
fighter and of the gloomy cypress swamps, and two direct objects,
experience and knowledge.)
PRACTICE 20 Explaining Participles
Diagram the following sentences.
OR Copy every participle and explain its use in the sentence.
THE GREATES SHOWMAN
1. Born in1810, P.T. Barnum held a variety of jobs in his early years.
2. Having studied people carefully, he soon discovered the power of
curiosity.
3. Barnum’s museum was a display of oddities collected from various
places on earth.
4. Some of the oddities were fakes manufactured by Barnum.
5. Having joined the body of a monkey and the tail of a fish, Barnum
exhibited a «mermaid.»
6. He once exhibited a pickpocket caught by the police.
A. 1. General Tom Thump and the «Woolly Horse» were two other famous
oddities exhibited by Barnum.
2. Barnum, having directed a parade of ten elephants on Broadway, kept
one elephants for publicity purposes.
3. Visitors to Bridgeport could watch this elephant plowing a field.
4. Having brought the great singer Jenny Lind here, Barnum actually
furthered the cause of music in America.
5. Mark Twain thoroughly enjoyed the autobiography first written by
Barnum in 1855.
6. Having joined forces with J.A. Bailey, Barnum formed one of the
greatest circuses in the world.
GERUND A verb form ending in ing may be used as a noun. This verbal noun
is called a «gerund.»
Subject: Catching and taming a wild pony was an Indian horseman’s first
concern. (Catching and taming is the compound subject of the verb was.).
The Plains Indians enjoyed racing horses for sport.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION
The Indians trained a horse for a race by tying the animal to a stake or
tree.
1. Crossing the Niagara gorge on a tightrope was first accomplished by
the Frenchman known professionally as Blondin.
As a noun the gerund crossing is the subject of the verb was
accomplished. As a verb it is modified by the adverb phrase on a
tightrope and takes the object gorge. Known is a participle modifying
Frenchman. When the subject, the direct object, or the predicate noun is
a gerund phrase, it is placed on a platform as indicated in the diagram.
2. One of his spectacular feats was carrying a man on his back during a
crossing.
Carrying is used as a predicate noun. Crossing, in the sense used here,
is defined as a noun.
3. Blondin often thrilled spectators by turning somersaults on the
swaying rope.
The gerund turning is the object of the preposition by and takes the
object somersaults.
GERUND PHRASE A ground and the word which modify it or complete its
meaning form a gerund phrase.
At the age of fine Blondin began experimenting on the tightrope.
PRACTICE 21 Explaining Gerunds
Diagram the following sentences.
OR Copy every gerund and explain its use.
THE GREAT SUBWAY MYSTERY
A. 1. Can you imagine building a tunnel in secret beneath a busy city
street?
2 A surprise events for New Yorkers in 1870 was the opening of a
mysterious new subway.
3. Cars were propelled by blowing air through a tube.
4. The builder, Alfred Beach, had received permission for constructing a
pneumatic dispatch service.
5. Instead he built a subway by enlarging the tube.
6. For privacy, the builder chose working during the quiet hours of the
night.
B 1. For removing dirt quietly the workers muffled the wheels of the
wagons.
2. Tunneling through the soil did not disturb the street traffic.
3. The goal was providing a new method of transportation for New
Yorkers.
4. Opening the first small stretch might encourage extension of the
line.
5. By killing a transit bill, the political opposition delayed further
progress.
6. In digging a subway in 1912 workers broke through the old tunnel and
found the little car on its rails.
POSSESSIVE WITH A GERUND Use the possessive form of a noun or a pronoun
before a gerund.
People gasped at (him, his) performing meredible feats 190 feet above
the water. (People did not gasp at him; they gasped at his performing
incredible feats. Performing is a gerund, object of the preposition at.
His modifies performing.)
PRACTICE 22 Modifiers of Gerunds
Select the preferred or never – questioned form in each pair of
parentheses, and tell how it is used.
1. Curt’s mother disapproved (him, his) deciding to drop orchestra.
2. The parents enjoyed (our, us) singing the old songs for the special
music program.
3. Sandy’s sister object to (him, his) playing records during her
telephone calls.
4. My parents were delighted at (me, my) becoming sports editor on the
Clarion.
5. Congratulations! I’ve just heard of (you your) winning a trip to
Washington.
6. The teacher approved (Tom, Tom’s) using the Reader’s Guide for his
project.
PARTICIPLE AND GERUND The possessive is not used with a participle.
The sense of the sentence will determine whether a participle or a
gerund is required.
Participle: We found him walking in the park. (His would not make sense.
Walking is a participle modifying him. He is the object of found.)
Gerund: We disapproved his walking in the park while he should be doing
homework. (Walking is a gerund, the object of disapproved. His modifies
walking.
PRACTICE 23 Studying Participles and Gerunds
Select the preferred alternative tell why you think it is correct.
1. We came upon (Ellen, Ellen’s) shaking her head and frowning.
2. I like Al, but I dislike (him, his) forgetting the date of the
picnic.
3. They found (our, us) digging in the garden.
4. The twins told of (their, them) finding a dollar bill on the sidewalk
near.
5. I was (you, your) walking along the boardwalk at sunset.
PRACTICE 24 Studying Participles and Gerunds
Discuss the difference in meaning between the sentences in each pair.
1. a. I dislike you finding fault with me.
b. I dislike your finding fault with me.
2. a. I remember Sam forgetting the carfare.
b. I remember Sam’s forgetting the carfare
3. a. I could visualize him winning the oratorical contest.
b. I could visualize his winning the oratorical contest.
INFINITIVE An infinitive is a verb form ordinarily introduced by to. It
is used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Some infinitives of carry are to carry, to have carried, to be carried,
to be carrying, to have been carrying, to have been carrying.
Noun: In Colorado we plan to ride one of the last narrow – gauge
passenger trains in America. (To ride is the object of the verb plan.)
Adjective: The first steam locomotive actually to work was built in 1801
by a Cornish mine operator. (To work modifies the noun locomotive.)
Adverb: Go to Alabama to find a wood-burning steam locomotive still in
operation. (To find modifies the verb go.)
To, the sign of the infinitive, is often omitted after bid, dare, feel,
hear, help, let, make, need, please, see, and sometimes after a few
other verbs.
Please come. No one dares begin without you.
INFINITIVE PHRASE An infinitive and the words which modify it or
complete its meaning form an infinitive phrase.
1. To know the truth is to be free.
The infinitive phrase to know the truth is the subject of the verb is.
Truth is the object of to know. To be free is an infinitive phrase used
as a predicate noun. Free is a predicate adjective.
2. With a few repairs a Baldwin locomotive built in 1836 was able to
give reliable service at the Chicago Railroad Fair in 1949.
The infinitive phrase to give reliable service at the Chicago Railroad
Fair in 1949 is used as an adverb modifying the predicate adjective
able. Service is the direct object of to give. Modern English in Action,
Henry I. Christ, DC Heath and company, Boston 2001
SUBJECT OF INFINITIVE After verbs of believing, commanding, expecting,
knowing, letting, making, telling, Thinking, wishing, and the like, the
infinitive may have a subject. The subject of the infinitive is in the
objective case.
The friendly Indians wanted the first Spanish explorers of California to
stay.
The first Spanish explorers of California are the subject of the
infinitive to stay. The infinitive phrase the first Spanish explorers of
California to stay is the object of the verb wanted.
PRACTICE 25 Explaining Infinitives
Diagram the following sentences
OR Copy every infinitive and explain its use.
A. 1. To be great is to be misunderstood.-Ralph Waldo Emerson
2. I’d like to go with you.
3. To procrastinate is to put off action.
4. Benjamin Franklin wanted the wild turkey to be our national bird.
B. 1. The first spot in the nation to fly officially the American flag
with forty-ninth stars was Fort McHenry.
2. At this fort near Baltimore, Francis Scott Key was inspired to write
our national anthem.
3. To display the American Flag Day and night is a special privilege.
4. A 1948 proclamation permits Fort McHenry National Monument to fly the
flag day and night.
PRACTICE 26 Recognizing Verbals
Copy every verbal in the following sentences. Draw one line under a
participle, a wavy line under a gerund, and a broken line under an
infinitive. Copy the whole participle, whether it is one, two, or three
words. Include sign to of the infinitive if it is expressed.
THE OLD-TIME PEDDLER
A. 1. A scene in the famous musical Oklahoma! Shows a Yankee peddler
arriving at a farmhouse. 2. Everyone gathers around enthusiastically to
greet this visitor from the world outside.3. For two centuries this
scene was reenacted in pioneer villages depending in part upon the
products delivered by the peddler. 4. By transporting necessary goods to
distant farms, the peddlers helped to settle new territories. 5. Some
peddlers and most medicine men undoubtedly helped to give all a bad
name. 6. Yet the solid contributions made by these adventurers must be
acknowledged.
7. Limited by the weight and bulk of the objects, the peddlers still
managed to carry a surprising number of items 8. They usually tried to
stock household items like pots, pans, nails, thread, buttons, scissors,
combs, ribbons and mirrors. B. 1. Pioneer women, surrounded by homemade
products, longed to own a bit of fancy lace or to serve exotic foods
like coffee and tea. 2. Some peddlers even managed to peddle wagons and
carriages, making a train of them. 3. After making a sale, the peddler
often found himself carrying a still heavier load, because of his having
to take farm products in barter.
4. Traveling through ankle-deep mud or knee-deep snow, and plagued by
insects, unfriendly dogs, and Indians, the man still persisted. 5. Why
did the peddler undertake to deliver these materials under such bad
conditions? 6. Starting with little capital, the peddler was often able
to make his fortune and to save enough for early retirement. 7. Some
came upon remote villages destined to become important cities and stayed
there. 8. In hundreds of cities businesses established by peddlers are
still flourishing.
VERBALS FOR CONCISENESS Where possible, use verbals for vivid, concise
expression.
Wordy: My parents took me to Georgia Tech in order that I might see the
campus.
Concise-using infinitive: My parents took me to Georgia Tech to see the
campus.
Wordy: Study more frequently and for shorter periods. In this way you
can avoid examination panic.
Concise-using gerund: By studying more frequently and for shorter
periods, you can avoid examination panic.
Wordy is perched high in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia. It is the
highest of the world’s great lakes.
Concise-using participle: Titicaca perched high in the Andes of Peru and
Bolivia, is the highest of the world’s great lakes.
PARTICIPLE 27 Using Verbals for Conciseness
By introducing participles, gerunds, and infinitives, improve the
following by making them more concise. Use the preceding examples as
guides.
1. We had two hours in which we might finish the test.
2. You will find The Caine Mutiny. It is lying on my desk near the lamp.
3. Next year I’m taking driver education in order that I might get my
license earlier.
4. We spent an entire morning at the abandoned mine. We did not find a
single quartz crystal. (Suggestion: use without)
5. Betty retraced her steps. She looked for the missing ring.
6. The inhabitants of Tristan da Cunha. Left their lonely island home
because of a volcanic eruption. Then they settled England.
7. Uncle Ben promised that he would take us to Chaves Ravine for a
Dodger game.
8. Robert put out his own mimeographed newspaper. In this way he earned
money for college.
9. The annual fireworks display was originally scheduled for July 4.
Because of the rain it was postponed to July 5.
10. After an hour at the fine arts exhibit I decided that I should try
Japanese sumi painting. Modern English in Action, Henry I. Christ, DC
Heath and company, Boston 2001
PRACTICE 28 Correcting sentence Fragments
Two of the following are correct. Eight include sentence fragments in
which a verbal is used instead of a predicate verb. Find the fragments
and either change a verbal to a predicate verb or attach the fragment to
the sentence.
1. Buster Keaton`s The General was an excellent picture. A silent film
made in the Twenties and still funny today.
2. The Academy Awards issued for outstanding performances and
contributions to the American movies.
3. Dad confessed to a secret ambition as a youngster. To climb the
Matterhorn.
4. The lake was alive with brightly colored motorboats pulling
enthusiastic water skiers.
5. An exciting piece of Navaho jewelry made of silver, turquoise, and
petrified rock.
6. Butter made for at least four thousand years and sometimes used as a
food by primitive people.
7. The first people to use fingerprinting, the Chinese, applied
thumbprints as seals on legal documents.
8. A new plastic developed by the Ideal Company and, never before
offered to the public.
9. The photograph showed Shibam in Aden, A skyscraper city built of
sunbaked mud bricks.
10. Tony explained the derivation of piano, or pianoforte. The latter
word meaning originally «soft, loud.»
PRACTICE 29 Putting Verbals to Work
Write one or two paragraphs (a total of eight to twelve sentences) on
one of the topics listed. Draw two lines under each predicate verb, a
straight line under each participle, a wavy line under each gerund, and
a broken line under each infinitive. Revise your work to include three
or more infinitives and five or more participles or gerunds.
1. A hobby that doesn’t cost a cent. 2. Fashions in television programs.
3. Summertime fun. 4. The pleasures of idleness. 5. A name in the news.
6. Part-time jobs. 7. A topic from Activity11 on page43. 8. Collecting
things. 9. A current event on television. 10. A room of my own.
Conclusion
As you continue to answer the challenge of university-level studies, you
will become more aware of the need to express your ideas clearly and
effectively. Your success on the job and in your personal life depends
in large measure on how well you communicate. My work is designed to
help you express your ideas and information clearly through carefully
written sentences. This work will guide you in focusing on the elements
of sentence structure and in developing the skills needed for effective
written communication.
My work also makes use of aspects of your abilities that you may not
have associated with writing skills, such as your previous life
experience and details you have learned through observation.
By combining an exploration of the structure and mechanics of writing
sentences with activities that engage your emotions and experiences.
My work provides on effective program of sentence-writing skills
essential to success in University.
As you work through my work, introduction, main parts you’ll find
informative content and user-friendly features that will help you
develop your sentence-writing skills and increase you confidence in your
writing.
By the end of the qualification work you’ll be ready to apply you
sentence-writing skills to the creation of a clear and unified
paragraph, which will form the basis of longer pieces of writing.
I think that the material of my paper should be used at schools,
academic lyceums and universities.
Bibliography
1. Modern English in Action, Henry I. Christ, DC Heath and company,
Boston 2001.
2. Mountains are climbing, study book, Boston 2003y.
3. English phonetic, A.A. Abduazizov издательство «Укитувчи» Т. 1972 г.
4. Reference guide to English, Alice Maclin, USA Washington 1994
5. Improve your sentence, Ann M. Sala, McCraw-Hill, USA. 1999y
6. Language for daily use Mildred A Dawson New York, 2001y
7. New English voyages in English, Francis B. Connors, Loyola
University. Press, Chicago 1991y
8. Writing skills, Suzanne Chance, Clencoe, McCraw-Hill. New York
9. Reading and writing, Natasha Haugnes
10. Contemporary English, Mechella Perrott, contemporary publisher
group, Illinois USA.
11. Beginning English writing skills, Mone Scherago, National textbook
company, Illinois USA.
12. Lectures of comparative typology, C. Satimov, M. Просвещениею
1991 г.
13. Comparative typology V.D. Arakin, M. «Prosveshenie» 1991
14. Comparative grammar, J.I.
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