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Естествознание предмет, общие принципы и тенденции развития

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IEIENOA?NOAI AIOO?AIIEO AeAE ?INNEENEIE OAAeA?AOeEE

AAEAI?IAeNEEE TH?EAeE*ANEEE EINOEOOO

Eaoaae?a aoiaieoa?iuo e nioeeaeueii-yeiiiie/aneeo aeenoeeieei

Aeenoeeieeia: ” Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey ”

?AOA?AO

ii oaia:

” Anoanoaiciaiea: i?aaeiao, iauea i?eioeeiu e oaiaeaioeee ?acaeoey”

Iiaeaioiaee:

i?ioanni? eaoaae?u AeNYAe,

e.o.i., aeioe.

Iiia?eia A.E.

I?iaa?ee:

Nooaeaio 534 a?oiiu

Iaeyaeei A.I.

Aaeai?iae – 2008

Ieai ?aoa?aoaNo?aieoeu1. Iaoea e aa i?ienoiaeaeaiea 42. ?acaeoea
anoanoaiciaiey io aioe/iinoe aei iaoeo aeiae 73. Anoanoaiciaiea e
iao/iay ea?oeia ie?a 114. Iauay iaii?aia nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey
15Caeeth/aiea 19

1. Iaoea e aa i?ienoiaeaeaiea.

Iaoea – iaeia ec oi?i iauanoaaiiiai niciaiey, noa?a /aeiaa/aneie
aeayoaeueiinoe, ooieoeeae eioi?ie yaeyaony au?aaioea e oai?aoe/aneay
nenoaiaoecaoeey iauaeoeaiuo ciaiee i aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe. A aeaeueiaeoai,
a oiaea enoi?e/aneiai ?acaeoey iaoea i?aa?auaaony a i?iecaiaeeoaeueioth
neeo iauanoaa e aaaeiaeoee nioeeaeueiue einoeooo. Iiiyoea “iaoea”
aeeth/aao a naay eae aeayoaeueiinoue ii iieo/aieth iiaiai ciaiey, oae e
?acoeueoao yoie aeayoaeueiinoe – noiio iieo/aiiuo e aeaiiiio iiiaioo
iao/iuo ciaiee, ia?acothueo a niaieoiiinoe iao/ioth ea?oeio ie?a. Oa?iei
“iaoea” oiio?aaeyaony oaeaea aeey iaicia/aiey ioaeaeueiuo io?aneae
iao/iiai ciaiey.

Iaiin?aaenoaaiiua oeaee iaoee – iienaiea, iauyniaiea e i?aaeneacaiea
i?ioeannia e yaeaiee aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe, ninoaaeythueo i?aaeiao aa
eco/aiey ia iniiaa ioe?uaaaiuo ath caeiiia, o.a. a oe?ieii niunea –
oai?aoe/aneia io?aaeaiea aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe.

Enoiee iaoee ooiaeyo naieie ei?iyie a i?aeoeeo ?aiieo /aeiaa/aneeo
iauanoa, a eioi?ie auee ia?acaeaeueii nieaaeaiu iiciaaaoaeueiua e
i?iecaiaenoaaiiua iiiaiou. “I?iecaiaenoai eaeae, i?aaenoaaeaiee,
niciaiey ia?aiia/aeueii iaiin?aaenoaaiii aieaoaii a iaoa?eaeueioth
aeayoaeueiinoue e a iaoa?eaeueiia iauaiea ethaeae, a ycue ?aaeueiie
aeecie. Ia?aciaaiea i?aaenoaaeaiee, iuoeaiea, aeooiaiia iauaiea ethaeae
yaeyaony caeanue aua iaiin?aaenoaaiiui ii?iaeaeaieai eo iaoa?eaeueiuo
aeaenoaee” (Ia?en E. e Yiaaeuen O., Oaea?aao. I?ioeaiiieiaeiinoue
iaoa?eaeenoe/aneiai e eaeaaeenoe/aneiai aicc?aiee, 1966, n. 29).

Ia?aiia/aeueiua ciaiey iineee i?aeoe/aneee oa?aeoa?, auiieiyy ?ieue
iaoiaee/aneiai ?oeiaiaenoaa eiie?aoiuie aeaeaie /aeiaa/aneie
aeayoaeueiinoe. A no?aiao Ae?aaiaai Ainoiea (Aaaeeiia, Aaeioa, Eiaeee,
Eeoaa) auei iaeiieaii cia/eoaeueiia eiee/anoai oaeiai ?iaea ciaiee,
eioi?ua ninoaaeee aaaeioth i?aaeiinueeo aoaeouae iaoee. Ioaeaeaiiie
i?aaeiinueeie iaoee iiaeii n/eoaoue e ieoieiaeth, a eioi?ie aia?aua auea
?aaeeciaaia iiiuoea iino?ieoue oeaeinoioth, anaiauaiethuoth nenoaio
i?aaenoaaeaiee ia ie?oaeathuae /aeiaaea aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe. A neeo
naiaai ?aeeaeicii-aio?iiiii?oiiai oa?aeoa?a yoe i?aaenoaaeaiey, iaeiaei,
i/aiue aeaeaei ionoiyee io iaoee e, aieaa oiai, oi?ie?iaaiea iaoee
o?aaiaaei a ea/anoaa i?aaeaa?eoaeueiiai oneiaey e?eoeee e ?ac?ooaiey
ieoieiae/aneeo nenoai.

Aeey aicieeiiaaiey iaoee auee oaeaea iaiaoiaeeiu e ii?aaeae?iiua
nioeeaeueiua oneiaey: aeinoaoi/ii aunieee o?iaaiue ?acaeoey
i?iecaiaenoaa e iauanoaaiiuo ioiioaiee (i?eaiaeyuee e ?acaeaeaieth
oinoaaiiiai e oece/aneiai o?oaea e oai naiui ioe?uaathuee aiciiaeiinoue
nenoaiaoe/aneeo caiyoee iaoeie), a oaeaea iaee/ea aiaaoie e oe?ieie
eoeueoo?iie o?aaeeoeee, aeiioneathuae naiaiaeiia aini?eyoea aeinoeaeaiee
?aciuo eoeueoo? e ia?iaeia.

Oaeea oneiaey neiaeeeenue e 6 a. aei i. y. a Ae?aaiae A?aoeee, aaea e
aicieeee ia?aua iao/iua oai?aoe/aneea nenoaiu (Oaean, Aeaiie?eo e ae?.),
a i?ioeaiaan ieoieiaee iauyniyaoea aeaenoaeoaeueiinoue /a?ac
anoanoaaiiua ia/aea. Ioaeaeeaoaany io ieoieiaee oai?aoe/aneia
iaoo?oeeinioneia ciaiea ia ia?auo ii?ao neie?aoe/anee niaaeeiyei a naaa
nianoaaiii iaoeo e oeeinioeth a aa oiic?eoaeueiuo aa?eaioao. Oai ia
iaiaa yoi auei eiaiii oai?aoe/aneia ciaiea, a eioi?ii ia ia?aue ieai
auaeaeaaeenue aai iauaeoeaiinoue e eiae/aneay oaaaeeoaeueiinoue.

Ae?aaiaa?a/aneay iaoea (A?enoioaeue e ae?.) aeaea ia?aua iienaiey
caeiiiia?iinoae i?e?iaeu, iauanoaa e iuoeaiey, eioi?ua, eiia/ii, auee ai
iiiaii ianiaa?oaiiu, ii oai ia iaiaa nua?aee auaeathuothny ?ieue a
enoi?ee eoeueoo?u: iie aaaee a i?aeoeeo iuneeoaeueiie aeayoaeueiinoe
nenoaio aano?aeoiuo iiiyoee, ioiinyueony e ie?o a oeaeii, i?aa?aoeee a
onoie/eaoth o?aaeeoeeth iiene iauaeoeaiuo, anoanoaaiiuo caeiiia
ie?icaeaiey e caeiaeeee iniiau aeieacaoaeueiiai niiniaa eceiaeaiey
iaoa?eaea, /oi ninoaaeei aaaeiaeooth /a?oo iaoee. A yoo aea yiioo io
iaoo?oeeinioee ia/eiatho iainiaeyoueny ioaeaeueiua iaeanoe ciaiey.
Yeeeienoe/aneee ia?eiae ae?aaiaa?a/aneie iaoee iciaiaiiaaeny nicaeaieai
ia?auo oai?aoe/aneeo nenoai a iaeanoe aaiiao?ee (Aaeeeae), iaoaieee
(A?oeiaae), ano?iiiiee (Ioieaiae).

A yiioo n?aaeiaaaeiauey ia?iiiue aeeaae a ?acaeoea iaoee aianee o/?iua
a?aaneiai Ainoiea e N?aaeiae Acee (Eai Neia, Eai ?ooae, Ae?oie e ae?.),
noiaaoea nio?aieoue e ?acaeoue ae?aaiaa?a/aneoth o?aaeeoeeth, iaiaaoea
a? a ?yaea iaeanoae ciaiey. A Aa?iia yoa o?aaeeoeey auea neeueii
o?ainoi?ie?iaaia ainiiaenoaii o?enoeaineie ?aeeaee, /oi ii?iaeeei
niaoeeoe/aneoth n?aaeiaaaeiaoth oi?io iaoee — noieanoeeo.

Iiae/ei?iiay ioaeaeai ?aeeaee, noieanoeea iniiaiia aieiaiea oaeaeyea
?ac?aaioea o?enoeaineie aeiaiaoeee, ii aianoa n oai iia aianea
cia/eoaeueiue aeeaae a ?acaeoea iuneeoaeueiie eoeueoo?u, a
niaa?oainoaiaaiea eneonnoaa oai?aoe/aneeo nii?ia e aeeneonnee.
Nicaeaieth aacu aeey iaoee a nia?aiaiiii niunea neiaa niinianoaiaaei
oaeaea ?acaeoea aeoeiee e ano?ieiaee: ia?aay caeiaeeea o?aaeeoeeth
iiuoiiai eco/aiey i?e?iaeiuo aauanoa e niaaeeiaiee, iiaeaioiaea ii/ao
aeey aicieeiiaaiey oeiee, a aoi?ay noeioee?iaaea nenoaiaoe/aneea
iaaethaeaiey ca iaaaniuie naaoeeaie, niaeaenoaoy ?acaeoeth iiuoiie aacu
aeey ano?iiiiee.

A nia?aiaiiii naiai iiieiaiee iaoea ia/aea neeaaeuaaoueny a iiaia a?aiy
(n 16—17 aa.) iiae aeeyieai iio?aaiinoae ?acaeaaaoaainy
eaieoaeenoe/aneiai i?iecaiaenoaa. Iiieii iaeiieaiiuo a i?ioeii
o?aaeeoeee, yoiio niaeaenoaiaaee aeaa ianoiyoaeuenoaa. Ai-ia?auo, a
yiioo Aic?iaeaeaiey auei iiaei?aaii ainiiaenoai ?aeeaeiciiai iuoeaiey, a
i?ioeainoiyuay aio ea?oeia ie?a iie?aeanue eae ?ac ia aeaiiua iaoee,
eiuie neiaaie, iaoea ia/aea i?aa?auaoueny a naiinoiyoaeueiue oaeoi?
aeooiaiie aeecie, a ?aaeueioth aaco ie?iaicc?aiey (Eaiia?aei aea Aei/e,
I. Eiia?iee). Ai-aoi?uo, ia?yaeo n iaaethaeaieai iaoea Iiaiai a?aiaie
aa?ao ia aii?oaeaiea yenia?eiaio, eioi?ue noaiiaeony a iae aaaeouei
iaoiaeii enneaaeiaaiey e ?aaeeeaeueii ?anoe?yao noa?o iiciaaaaiie
?aaeueiinoe, oanii niaaeeiyy oai?aoe/aneea ?annoaeaeaiey n i?aeoe/aneei
“eniuoaieai” i?e?iaeu. A ?acoeueoaoa ?acei oneeeeanue iiciaaaoaeueiay
iiuue iaoee. Yoi aeoaieia i?aia?aciaaiea iaoee a 16—17 aa. auei ia?aie
iao/iie ?aaiethoeeae (A. Aaeeeae, E. Eaiea?, O. Aa?aae, ?. Aeaea?o, X.
Atheaain, E. Iuethoii e ae?.).

Auno?ue ?ino oniaoia iaoee, caiyoea ath aaaeoueo iiceoeee a oi?ie?iaaiee
iiaie ea?oeiu ie?a i?eaaee e oiio, /oi iaoea ia/aea aunooiaoue a iiaia
a?aiy eae aunoay eoeueoo?iay oeaiiinoue, ia eioi?oth oae eee eia/a noaei
i?eaioe?iaaoueny iiaeaaeythuaa aieueoeinoai oeeinioneeo oeie e
iai?aaeaiee. A iaeanoe iiciaiey yaeaiee iauanoaaiiie aeecie yoi
i?iyaeeinue a iieneao “anoanoaaiiuo ia/ae” ?aeeaee, i?aaa, ii?aee e o.
i., iie?aaoeony ia i?aaenoaaeaiey i “/aeiaa/aneie i?e?iaea” (A. A?ioeee,
A. Nieiica, O. Aiaan, Aeae. Eiee e ae?.). Ianouay “naao ?acoia” iaoea
?anniao?eaaeanue eae aaeeinoaaiiay aioeoaca anai ii?ieai nioeeaeueiie
aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe, i?aia?aciaaiea eioi?ie ia iuneeeinue eia/a, eae ia
ieaa i?inaauaiey. ” Iuneyuee ?annoaeie noae aaeeinoaaiiui ia?eeii anaai
nouanoaothuaai” (O.Yiaaeuen.).

Oniaoe iaoaieee, nenoaiaoece?iaaiiie e caaa?o?iiie a naieo iniiaaieyo e
eiioeo 17 a., nua?aee ?aoathuoth ?ieue a oi?ie?iaaiee iaoaienoe/aneie
ea?oeiu ie?a, eioi?ay anei?a i?eia?aea oieaa?naeueiia ie?iaicc?ai/aneia
cia/aiea (E. Yeea?, I. A. Eiiiiinia, I. Eaiean e ae?.). A a? ?aieao
inouanoaeyeinue iiciaiea ia oieueei oece/aneeo e oeie/aneeo, ii oaeaea e
aeieiae/aneeo yaeaiee — a oii /enea e iauyniaiea /aeiaaea eae
oeaeinoiiai i?aaiecia (eiioeaioeey “/aeiaaea-iaoeiu” AE. Eaiao?e).
Eaeaaeu iaoaienoe/aneiai anoanoaiciaiey noaiiayony iniiaaieai oai?ee
iiciaiey e o/aiey i iaoiaeao iaoee, eioi?ua eae ?ac a yoio ia?eiae
iieo/atho auno?ia ?acaeoea. Aicieeatho oeeinioneea o/aiey i /aeiaa/aneie
i?e?iaea, iauanoaa e ainoaea?noaa, aunooiathuea a 17—18 aa. eae ?acaeaeu
iauaai o/aiey i aaeeiii ie?iaii iaoaiecia.

Iii?a iaoee Iiaiai a?aiaie ia yenia?eiaio e ?acaeoea iaoaieee caeiaeeee
ooiaeaiaio aeey onoaiiaeaiey nayce iaoee n i?iecaiaenoaii, oioy i?i/iue
e nenoaiaoe/aneee oa?aeoa? yoa naycue i?eia?aea eeoue a eiioea 19 a.

Ia aaca iaoaienoe/aneie ea?oeiu ie?a e ia/aea 19 a. aue iaeiieai,
nenoaiaoece?iaai e oai?aoe/anee iniuneai cia/eoaeueiue iaoa?eae,
ioiinyueeny e ioaeaeueiui iaeanoyi aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe.

Iaeiaei yoio iaoa?eae ana aieaa yaii ia oeeaaeuaaeny a ?aiee
iaoaienoe/aneiai iauyniaiey i?e?iaeu e iauanoaa e o?aaiaae iiaiai, aieaa
aeoaieiai e oe?ieiai neioaca, ioaaouaathuaai iieo/aiiua ?aciuie iaoeaie
?acoeueoaou. Ioe?uoea caeiia nio?aiaiey e i?aa?auaiey yia?aee (?. Iaea?,
Aeae. Aeaeioeue, A. Aaeueiaieueoe) iicaieeei iinoaaeoue ia iauoth iniiao
ana ?acaeaeu oeceee e oeieth. Nicaeaiea eeaoi/iie oai?ee (O. Oaaii, I.
Oeaeaeai) iieacaei aaeeiiia?acioth no?oeoo?o anao aeeauo i?aaieciia.
Yaiethoeeiiiia o/aiea a aeieiaee (*. Aea?aei) aianei a anoanoaiciaiea
eaeath ?acaeoey. Ia?eiaee/aneay nenoaia yeaiaioia (Ae. E. Iaiaeaeaaa)
aeieacaea iaee/ea aioo?aiiae nayce iaaeaeo anaie ecaanoiuie aeaeaie
aauanoaa.

A na?aaeeia 19 a. nicaeathony nioeeaeueii-yeiiiie/aneea, oeeinioneea e
iauaiao/iua i?aaeiinueee aeey iino?iaiey iao/iie oai?ee iauanoaaiiiai
?acaeoey, ?aaeeciaaiiua iniiaiiieiaeieeaie ia?enecia. E.Ia?en e O.
Yiaaeuen inouanoaeee ?aaiethoeeiiiue ia?aai?io a ?acaeoee iauanoaaiiie
iaoee e oeeinioee, i?eaaaeoee oaeaea e nicaeaieth iaoiaeieiae/aneie aacu
aeey oi?ie?iaaiey eiiieaena iaoee ia iauanoaa. Iiaue yoai a enoi?ee
iaoee ia iauanoaa naycai n eiaiai A. E. Eaieia, ?acaeaoaai a iiaoth
enoi?e/aneoth yiioo ana ninoaaiua /anoe ia?enecia.

E?oiiua eciaiaiey a iniiaao iao/iiai iuoeaiey, a oaeaea ?yae iiauo
ioe?uoee a oeceea (yeaeo?iia, ?aaeeiaeoeaiinoe e ae?.) i?eaaee ia
?oaaaea 19—20 aa. e e?eceno eeanne/aneie iaoee iiaiai a?aiaie e i?aaeaea
anaai e e?aoo aa oeeinioneie iaoiaeieiae/aneie iniiau — iaoaienoe/aneiai
ie?iaicc?aiey. Nouiinoue yoiai e?ecena auea ?ane?uoa A. E. Eaieiui a
eieaa “Iaoa?eaeeci e yiie?eie?eoeoeeci”.

E?ecen ?ac?aoeeny iiaie ?aaiethoeeae a iaoea, eioi?ay ia/aeanue a oeceea
(I. Ieaie, A. Yeiooaei) e ioaaoeea ana iniiaiua io?anee iaoee.
Naeeaeaiea iaoee n i?iecaiaenoaii ai 2-e iieiaeia 19 a. i?eaaei e oiio,
/oi a iae ?acei au?in iau?i eieeaeoeaiiai o?oaea. Yoi iio?aaiaaei iiauo
i?aaiecaoeeiiiuo oi?i a? nouanoaiaaiey. Iaoeo 20 a. oa?aeoa?ecotho
oaniay e i?i/iay acaeiinaycue n oaoieeie, an? aieaa aeoaieia i?aa?auaiea
iaoee a iaiin?aaenoaaiioth i?iecaiaeeoaeueioth neeo iauanoaa,
aic?anoaiea e oaeoaeaiea a? nayce ni anaie noa?aie iauanoaaiiie aeecie,
oneeaiea a? nioeeaeueiie ?iee. Nia?aiaiiay iaoea ninoaaeyao aaaeiaeoee
eiiiiiaio iao/ii-oaoie/aneie ?aaiethoeee, a? aeaeaeouoth neeo.

“Oi/ee ?inoa” iaoee 20 a. iaoiaeeeenue, eae i?aaeei, ia ia?ana/aiee
aioo?aiiae eiaeee a? ?acaeoey n aeeeooaiuie nia?aiaiiui iauanoaii an?
aieaa iiiaiia?aciuie nioeeaeueiuie iio?aaiinoyie. E na?aaeeia 20 a. ia
iaeii ec ia?auo iano a anoanoaiciaiee auaeaeioeanue aeieiaey, a eioi?ie
niaa?oaiu ooiaeaiaioaeueiua ioe?uoey (iai?., O. E?eeii e Aeae. Oioniiii
onoaiiaeaia iieaeoey?iay no?oeoo?a AeIE, ioe?uo aaiaoe/aneee eiae e
ae?.). Iniaaiii aunieea oaiiu ?acaeoey oa?aeoa?iu aeey oao iai?aaeaiee
iaoee, eioi?ua, eioaa?e?oy aeinoeaeaiey ?acee/iuo a? io?aneae,
ioe?uaatho i?eioeeieaeueii iiaua ia?niaeoeau ?aoaiey e?oiiuo eiiieaeniuo
i?iaeai nia?aiaiiinoe (nicaeaiea iiauo enoi/ieeia yia?aee e iaoa?eaeia,
iioeiecaoeey ioiioaiee /aeiaaea n i?e?iaeie, oi?aaeaiea aieueoeie
nenoaiaie, einie/aneea enneaaeiaaiey e o.i.).

2. ?acaeoea anoanoaiciaiey io aioe/iinoe aei iaoeo aeiae.

Anoanoaaiiiiao/iua ciaiey Ae?aaiaai Ainoiea i?iieeee a Ae?aaithth
A?aoeeth a VI a. aei i.y. e ia?aee noaoon iaoee eae ii?aaeaeaiiie
nenoaiu ciaiee. Yoa iaoea iacuaaeanue iaoo?oeeinioeae (io eao. natura —
i?e?iaea). Iaoo?oeeiniou auee iaeiia?aiaiii e oeeinioaie, e o/aiuie. Iie
aini?eieiaee i?e?iaeo ai anae aa iieiioa e auee enneaaeiaaoaeyie a
?acee/iuo iaeanoyo ciaiey. Yoa noaaeey ?acaeoey iaoee oa?aeoa?ecoaony
eiioeaiooaeueiui oainii, i?iyaeaieai eioi?iai e noaea eiieo?aioeey
?acee/iuo aicc?aiee ia i?e?iaeo. Ai anao o?oaeao ae?aaiaa?a/aneeo o/aiuo
anoanoaaiiiiao/iua eaeae oiiei aieaoaiu a oeeinioneoth ieoue eo iunee.

A VI a. aei i.y. a ae?aaiaa?a/aneii ai?iaea Ieeaoa aicieeea ia?aay
iao/iay oeiea, ecaanoiay, i?aaeaea anaai, ia naieie aeinoeaeaieyie, a
naieie eneaieyie. Iniiaiie i?iaeaiie yoie oeieu auea i?iaeaia
ia?aiia/aea anao aauae: ec /aai ninoiyo ana aaue e ie?oaeathuee ie??
I?aaeeaaaeenue ?aciua aa?eaiou oiai, /oi n/eoaoue ia?aiiniiaie anao
aauae: iaiiue (Aa?aeeeo), aiaea (Oaean), aicaeoo (Aiaeneiai), aeae?ii
(Aiaeneiaiae?).

Ae?oaia iao/iia niiauanoai ?anniao?eaaaiiai ia?eiaea, ieoaai?aeoeu, a
ea/anoaa ia?aiia/aea ie?a — acaiai aiaeu, aicaeooa eee iaiy — aaaee
iiiyoea /enea. Iie oaeaea ioia/aee naycue iaaeaeo caeiiaie iocuee e
/eneaie. Niaeanii eo o/aieth, “yeaiaiou /enae aeieaeiu auoue yeaiaioaie
aauae”. Ieoaai? (582—500 aa. aei i.y.) aue ia oieueei ecaanoiui
iaoaiaoeeii e ano?iiiiii, ii e aeooiaiui eeaea?ii naieo o/aieeia e
iiiaeo o/aiuo oiai a?aiaie. Ieoaai?aeoeu i?iiiaaaeiaaee oei aeecie a
iieneao enoeiu, iao/iia iiciaiea, eioi?ia, eae iie n/eoaee, e anoue
aunoaa i/euaiea – i/euaiea aeooe io oaea.

Neaaeoao ioiaoeoue, /oi ieoaai?aeneea /enea ia niioaaonoaotho
nia?aiaiiui aano?aeoiui i?aaenoaaeaieyi i ieo. Ieoaai?aeneia /enei
oyioei ca niaie aeeeiiue “oeaeo” oece/aneeo, aaiiao?e/aneeo e aeaaea
ienoe/aneeo iiiyoee.

Enneaaeiaaiea ia?aiiniiau aauae aneaae ca o/aiuie ieeaoneie oeieu auee
i?iaeieaeaiu Aeaiie?eoii (ie. 460-370 aa. aei i.y.) e aai o/eoaeai
Eaaeeiiii, eioi?ua aaaee iiiyoea aoiia. Iiaia o/aiea, aoiienoeea,
ooaa?aeaeaei, /oi ana a ie?a ninoieo ec aoiiia — iaaeaeeiuo, iaeciaiiuo,
ia?ac?ooeiuo, aeaeaeoueony, iaaicieeathueo, aa/iuo, iaeue/aeoeo /anoeoe.

Naiie y?eie oeao?ie aioe/iie iaoee oiai ia?eiaea aue aaee/aeoee o/aiue
e oeeinio A?enoioaeue (384-322 aa. aei i.y.), aaoi?eoao eioi?iai aue
iacuaeaiui aieaa iieooi?a ouny/ eao. A?enoioaeue a niaa?oainoaa inaiee
o/aiea naiaai o/eoaey Ieaoiia, ii ia iiaoi?ee aai iooue, a iioae
aeaeueoa, aua?aa naia nianoaaiiia iai?aaeaiea a iao/iii iienea. Anee
aeey Ieaoiia auei oa?aeoa?ii ninoiyiea aa/iiai iienea aac eiie?aoiie
ieii/aoaeueiie iiceoeee, oi iao/iue aeoo A?enoioaey aae aai e neioaco e
nenoaiaoecaoeee, e iinoaiiaea i?iaeai e aeeooa?aioeeaoeee iaoiaeia. Ii
iaiaoee iaaeno?aeueiua iooe ?acaeoey iaoaoeceee, oeceee, ineoieiaee,
eiaeee, a oaeaea yoeee, ynoaoeee, iieeoeee.

A?enoioaeue ?acaeaeye ana iaoee ia o?e aieueoeo ?acaeaea: iaoee
oai?aoe/aneea e i?aeoe/aneea, aeiauaathuea ciaiey ?aaee aeinoeaeaiey
ii?aeueiiai niaa?oainoaiaaiey, a oaeaea iaoee i?iaeoeoeaiua, oeaeue
eioi?uo – i?iecaiaenoai ii?aaeaeaiiuo iauaeoia. Oi?iaeueiay eiaeea,
nicaeaiiay A?enoioaeai, i?inouanoaiaaea a i?aaeeiaeaiiie ei oi?ia
aieioue aei eiioea XIX a.

Ca?iaeaeaiea iaaeeoeeiu eae naiinoiyoaeueiiai iao/iiai ciaiey naycaii n
eiaiai Aeiiie?aoa (460—370 aa. aei i.y.), eioi?ue i?eaeae ae noaoon
iaoee e nicaeae yooaeoeaii aeaenoaothuee iaoiae, i?aainoaaiii naycaiiue
n eiieeneie oeeinioeae i?e?iaeu. Ca yoei iaoiaeii noiyee oneeey ae?aaieo
oeeinioia aeaoue anoanoaaiiia iauyniaiea eaaeaeiio yaeaieth, iaeoe aai
i?e/eio e oeaii/eo neaaenoaee, aa?o a aiciiaeiinoue iiiyoue ana oaeiu
ie?a. Iaaeeoeeineea o?oaeu Aeiiie?aoa iiiai/eneaiiu e ?aciiia?aciu.
Iniiaiie aai oacen: iaaeeoeeia aeieaeia ?acaeaaoueny ia iniiaa oi/iiai
iaoiaea, nenoaiaoe/aneiai e i?aaieciaaiiiai iienaiey ?acee/iuo
caaieaaaiee.

A 30-o aa. aei i.y. iiaui iao/iui oeaio?ii noaiiaeony ?ei ni naieie
eioa?anaie e naiei aeooiaiui eeeiaoii, i?eaioe?iaaiiui ia i?aeoe/iinoue
e ?acoeueoaoeaiinoue.

Ioieaiae aeee, aiciiaeii, a 100-170 aa. i.y. Iniaia ianoi n?aaee aai
?aaio caieiaao “Aaeeeia iino?iaiea” (a a?aaneii ia?aaiaea —
“Aeueiaaano”), eioi?ay yaeyaony eoiaii anao ano?iiiie/aneeo ciaiee oiai
a?aiaie. Yoa ?aaioa iinayuaia iaoaiaoe/aneiio iienaieth ea?oeiu ie?a
(iieo/aiiie io A?enoioaey), a eioi?ie Nieioea, Eoia e 5 ieaiao,
ecaanoiuo e oiio a?aiaie, a?auathony aie?oa Caiee. Ec anao iaoe Ioieaiae
ioaeaao i?aaeii/oaiea iaoaiaoeea aaeaeo aa no?iainoe e
aeieacaoaeueiinoe. Ianoa?neia aeaaeaiea iaoaiaoe/aneeie ?an/aoaie a
iaeanoe ano?iiiiee niaiauaeinue o Ioieaiay n oaaaeaeaieai, /oi caacaeu
aeeytho ia aeeciue /aeiaaea. Aaioeaio?e/aneay ea?oeia ie?a, iainiiaaiiay
ei iaoaiaoe/anee, neoaeeea iniiaie ie?iaicc?aiey o/aiuo aieioue aei
iioaeeeiaaiey o?oaea I.Eiia?ieea “Ia ia?auaiee iaaaniuo noa?”.

Iaoea aioe/iiai ie?a iaycaia Aaeaio (130-200 aa.?) nenoaiaoecaoeeae
ciaiey a iaeanoe iaaeeoeeiu. Ii iaiauee aiaoiie/aneea enneaaeiaaiey,
iieo/aiiua iaaeeeaie aeaenaiae?eeneiai Iocay; iniuneee yeaiaiou ciieiaee
e aeieiaee, aini?eiyoua io A?enoioaey; oai?eth yeaiaioia, ea/anoa e
aeeaeeinoae nenoaiu Aeiiie?aoa. E yoiio iiaeii aeiaaaeoue aai
oaeaieiae/aneoth eiioeaioeeth.

Anoanoaiciaiea ?acaeaaeinue e a n?aaeiaaaeiaie Aa?iia, i?e/ai aai
?acaeoea oei ii naiui ?aciui iooyi. Iniai iaiaoiaeeii oiiiyiooue iienee
aeoeieeia e aeeyiea oieaa?neoaoia, eioi?ua auee /enoi aa?iiaeneei
ii?iaeaeaieai. Ia?iiiia /enei ioe?uoee a aeoeiee auei naeaeaii einaaiii.
Iaaeinoeaeeiay oeaeue (oeeinioneee eaiaiue, /aeiaa/aneia aannia?oea)
o?aaiaaea eiie?aoiuo oaaia, e, aeaaiaea?y aeoaieei ciaieyi e
ne?oioeaciinoe a enneaaeiaaieyo, aeoeieee ioe?uee iiaua caeiiu,
aauanoaa, oeie/aneea yeaiaiou.

N XIII a. a Aa?iia ia/eiatho iiyaeyoueny oieaa?neoaou. Naiuie ia?auie
auee oieaa?neoaou a Aieiiuea e Ia?eaea. Aeaaiaea?y oieaa?neoaoai
aicieeei nineiaea o/aiuo e i?aiiaeaaaoaeae o?enoeaineie ?aeeaee, eioi?ia
iiaeii n/eoaoue ooiaeaiaioii nineiaey eioaeeaeooaeia.

A enoi?ee anoanoaiciaiey i?ioeann iaeiieaiey ciaiee niaiyeny ia?eiaeaie
iao/iuo ?aaiethoeee, eiaaea i?ienoiaeeea eiiea noa?uo i?aaenoaaeaiee e
acaiai eo aicieeaee iiaua oai?ee.

E?oiiua iao/iua ?aaiethoeee naycaiu n oaeeie aeinoeaeaieyie /aeiaa/aneie
iunee, eae:

– o/aiea i aaeeioeaio?e/aneie nenoaia ie?a I. Eiia?ieea;

– nicaeaiea eeanne/aneie iaoaieee E. Iuethoiiii;

– ?yae ooiaeaiaioaeueiuo ioe?uoee a aeieiaee, aaieiaee, oeiee e oeceea
a ia?aie iieiaeia XIX noieaoey, iiaeoaa?aeeaoea i?ioeann yaiethoeeiiiiai
?acaeoey i?e?iaeu e onoaiiaeaoea oanioth acaeiinaycue iiiaeo yaeaiee
i?e?iaeu;

– e?oiiua ioe?uoey a ia/aea XX noieaoey a iaeanoe iee?iie?a, nicaeaiea
eaaioiaie iaoaieee e oai?ee ioiineoaeueiinoe.

?anniio?ei yoe iniiaiua aeinoeaeaiey.

Caiey, ii Eiia?ieeo, — ia oeaio? Anaeaiiie, nicaeaiiie Aiaii, a iaaaniia
oaei, eae e ae?oaea. Ii anee Caiey — iau/iia iaaaniia oaei, oi ia iiaeao
ee auoue oae, /oi ethaee iaeoatho e ia ae?oaeo ieaiaoao?

Iaoea noaiiaeony ia i?eaeeaaeae ioaeaeueiiai iaaa eee i?inaauaiiiai
ano?ieiaa, ia eiiiaioa?eai e iuneyi aaoi?eoaoa (A?enoioaey), eioi?ue ana
neacae. Oaia?ue iaoea — enneaaeiaaiea e ?ane?uoea ie?a i?e?iaeu, aa
iniiao oaia?ue ninoaaeyao yenia?eiaio. Iiyaeeanue iaiaoiaeeiinoue a
niaoeeaeueiii no?iaii ycuea. Iaeaieaa oa?aeoa?iay /a?oa aicieeoae iaoee
— aa iaoiae. Ii aeiioneaao iauanoaaiiue eiio?ieue, e eiaiii iiyoiio
iaoea noaiiaeony nioeeaeueiie. Iao/iay ?aaiethoeey ii?iaeaeaao
nia?aiaiiiai o/aiiai-yenia?eiaioaoi?a, neea eioi?iai — a yenia?eiaioa,
noaiiayuainy ana aieaa e aieaa oi/iui, no?iaei aeaaiaea?y iiaui
ecia?eoaeueiui i?eai?ai. Iiaia ciaiea iie?aaony ia nithc oai?ee e
i?aeoeee, eioi?ue /anoi iieo/aao ?acaeoea a eiiia?aoeee o/aiuo, n iaeiie
noi?iiu, e oaoieeia e ianoa?ia aunoaai ?ac?yaea – n ae?oaie.

N?aaieiua ii i?eaaaeaiiiio ianooaao ia?aiaiu a oai?aoe/aneie oeceea
i?iecioee a XVII a. Aue inouanoaeai ia?aoiae io a?enoioaeaaie oeceee e
iuethoiiiaie, eioi?ay ainiiaenoaiaaea a caiaaeiie iaoea a oa/aiea o?ao
noieaoee. Eniieuecoy yoo iiaeaeue, oeceea aeinoeaea i?ia?anna e auaiaeii
ioee/aeanue io ae?oaeo aeenoeeieei.

Aiai?y i nicaeaiee iaoaieee Iuethoiiii, iaeuecy ia oiiiyiooue eiy
Aaeeeai, eioi?ue noiye o aa enoieia. Aai i?eioeei eia?oeee aue
e?oiiaeoei aeinoeaeaieai /aeiaa/aneie iunee: i?aaeeiaeea aai ie?o, ii
?aoee ooiaeaiaioaeueioth i?iaeaio — i?iaeaio aeaeaeaiey. Oaea iaeiiai
yoiai ioe?uoey auei au aeinoaoi/ii aeey oiai, /oiau Aaeeeae noae
auaeathueiny o/aiui Iiaiai a?aiaie.

Ia?aue caeii iaoaieee Iuethoiia — yoi i?eioeei eia?oeee,
noi?ioee?iaaiiue Aaeeeaai. Ai aoi?ii caeiia iaoaieee Iuethoii
ooaa?aeaeaao, /oi onei?aiea, i?eia?aoaaiia oaeii, i?yii
i?iii?oeeiiaeueii i?eeiaeaiiie neea e ia?aoii i?iii?oeeiiaeueii ianna
yoiai oaea. E o?aoee caeii iaoaieee Iuethoiia anoue caeii aeaenoaey e
i?ioeaiaeaenoaey: aeaenoaey aeaoo oae ae?oa ia ae?oaa anaaaea ?aaiu ii
aaee/eia e i?ioeaiiieiaeiu ii iai?aaeaieth. E aua iaeei caeii,
i?aaeeiaeaiiue Iuethoiiii, caeii anaie?iiai oyaioaiey cao/eo oae: ana
oaea acaeiii i?eoyaeaathony i?yii i?iii?oeeiiaeueii eo iannai e ia?aoii
i?iii?oeeiiaeueii eaaae?aoo ?annoiyiey iaaeaeo ieie. Yoi —
oieaa?naeueiue caeii i?e?iaeu, ia iniiaa eioi?iai auea iino?iaia oai?ey
Nieia/iie nenoaiu.

?acaeoea aeieiaee a XIX aaea oaeaea ia iaoiaeeeinue aac ?aaiethoeeiiiuo
ioe?uoee a oi a?aiy e oei naiei iooai:

– A. Iaiaeaeue (1822-1884) ioe?ue caeiiu ianeaaenoaaiiinoe;

-Enneaaeoy aaeoa?ee, E. Ianoa? iieacae, /oi iie i?enoonoaotho a
aoiinoa?a, ?ani?ino?aiythony eaiaeueiui iooai e eo iiaeii ?ac?ooeoue
aunieioaiia?aoo?iui iaa?aaaieai.

Eoiaii ?acaeoey yaiethoeeiiiie eiioeaioeee noaea ?aaioa *. Aea?aeia
(1809— 1882) “I?ienoiaeaeaiea aeaeia iooai anoanoaaiiiai ioai?a” (1859).
Yoa oai?ey eiaea oaeia aea aeeyiea ia oiu ethaeae, eaeia a naia a?aiy
eiaea oai?ey Eiia?ieea. Yoi auea iao/iay ?aaiethoeey a iaeanoe aeieiaee.

Neaaeothuay iao/iay ?aaiethoeey, iinea eioi?ie ?acei eciaieeanue nenoaia
acaeyaeia e iiaeoiaeia, auea oaeaea naycaia n oeceeie. Yoi i?iecioei a
eiioea XIX — ia/aea XX noieaoey. Oie/eii e iino?iaieth iiaie oece/aneie
ea?oeiu ie?a iineoaeee ?yae iiauo yenia?eiaioaeueiuo oaeoia, eioi?ua ia
iiaee auoue iienaiu a ?aieao noa?uo oai?ee, eae yoi iau/ii auaaao a
iaoea. E oaeei oaeoai ioiinyony, i?aaeaea anaai:

– enneaaeiaaiey Oa?aaeay ii yeaeo?e/aneei yaeaieyi;

– ?aaiou Iaenaaeea e Aa?oea ii yeaeo?iaeeiaieea;

– eco/aiea yaeaiey ?aaeeiaeoeaiinoe Aaeea?aeai;

– ioe?uoea ia?aie yeaiaioa?iie /anoeoeu (yeaeo?iia) Oiiniiii e o.ae.

Iiyoaiii, aeaaiaea?y ?aaioai ?yaea oeceeia e aeaaiui ia?acii Ai?a,
Aaecaiaa?aa, O?aaeeiaa?a, Ieaiea, aea A?ieey e ae?oaeo, auea iino?iaia
oece/aneay oai?ey iee?iie?a, nicaeaia eaaioiaay iaoaieea. Niaeanii yoie
oai?ee, aeaeaeaiea iee?i/anoeoe a i?ino?ainoaa e a?aiaie ia eiaao ie/aai
iauaai n iaoaie/aneei aeaeaeaieai iae?iiauaeoia e iiae/eiyaony
niioiioaieth iaii?aaeaeaiiinoae: anee ecaanoii iieiaeaiea iee?i/anoeoeu
a i?ino?ainoaa, oi inoaaony iaecaanoiui aa eiioeuen e iaiai?io.

A 1905 a. A. Yeiooaei nicaeae niaoeeaeueioth oai?eth ioiineoaeueiinoe, a
eioi?ie naienoaa i?ino?ainoaa e a?aiaie naycaiu n iaoa?eae e aia iaoa?ee
oa?ytho niune. Yoa oai?ey aeaao i?aia?aciaaiea i?ino?ainoaaiiuo e
a?aiaiiuo eii?aeeiao oae, eioi?ua aeaeaathony ni nei?inoyie, n?aaieiuie
ni nei?inoueth naaoa. Aoi?ay /anoue oai?ee, eioi?ay iacuaaaony iauae
oai?eae ioiineoaeueiinoe, naycuaaao i?enoonoaea aieueoeo a?aaeoaoeeiiiuo
iieae (eee iannu) n ene?eaeaieai i?ino?ainoaa. Yoa /anoue oai?ee
eniieuecoaony a einiieiae/aneeo iiaeaeyo.

3. Anoanoaiciaiea e iao/iay ea?oeia ie?a.

I?aaenoaaeaiey i naienoaao e iniaaiiinoyo ie?oaeathuae ian i?e?iaeu
aicieeatho ia iniiaa oao ciaiee, eioi?ua a eaaeaeue enoi?e/aneee ia?eiae
aeatho iai ?aciua iaoee, eco/athuea ?acee/iua i?ioeannu e yaeaiey
i?e?iaeu.

Iineieueeo i?e?iaea i?aaenoaaeyao niaie ia/oi aaeeiia e oeaeia,
iinoieueeo e ciaiey i iae aeieaeiu eiaoue oeaeinoiue oa?aeoa?, o.a.
i?aaenoaaeyoue niaie ii?aaeaeaiioth nenoaio. Oaeoth nenoaio iao/iuo
ciaiee i i?e?iaea ecaeaaia iacuaatho anoanoaiciaieai. ?aiueoa a
anoanoaiciaiea aoiaeeee ana n?aaieoaeueii iaiiiai/eneaiiua ciaiey,
eioi?ua auee ecaanoiu i i?e?iaea, ii oaea n yiioe Aic?iaeaeaiey
aicieeatho e iainiaeythony ioaeaeueiua aai io?anee e aeenoeeieeiu,
ia/eiaaony i?ioeann aeeooa?aioeeaoeee iao/iiai ciaiey. ssnii, /oi ia ana
yoe ciaiey yaeythony iaeeiaeiai aaaeiuie aeey iiieiaiey i?e?iaeu.

*oiau iiae/a?eiooue ooiaeaiaioaeueiue oa?aeoa? iniiaiuo e aaaeiaeoeo
ciaiee i i?e?iaea, o/aiua aaaee iiiyoea iao/iie ea?oeiu ie?a, iiae
eioi?ie iiieiatho nenoaio aaaeiaeoeo i?eioeeiia e caeiiia, eaaeaueo a
iniiaa ie?oaeathuaai ian ie?a. Nai oa?iei “ea?oeia ie?a” oeacuaaao, /oi
?a/ue eaeao caeanue ia i /anoe eee o?aaiaioa ciaiey, a i oeaeinoiie
nenoaia. Eae i?aaeei, a oi?ie?iaaiee oaeie ea?oeiu iaeaieaa aaaeiia
cia/aiea i?eia?aoatho eiioeaioeee e oai?ee, iaeaieaa ?acaeouo a
ii?aaeaeaiiue enoi?e/aneee ia?eiae io?aneae anoanoaiciaiey, eioi?ua
auaeaeaathony a ea/anoaa aai eeaea?ia. Ia iiaeeaaeeo niiiaieth, /oi
eeaee?othuea iaoee iaeeaaeuaatho naith ia/aoue ia i?aaenoaaeaiey e
iao/iia ie?iaicc?aiea o/aiuo niioaaonoaothuae yiioe. Ii yoi ioithaeue ia
icia/aao, /oi ae?oaea iaoee ia o/anoaotho a oi?ie?iaaiee ea?oeiu
i?e?iaeu. A aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe iia aicieeaao eae ?acoeueoao neioaca
ooiaeaiaioaeueiuo ioe?uoee e ?acoeueoaoia enneaaeiaaiey anao io?aneae e
aeenoeeieei anoanoaiciaiey.

Nouanoaothuay ea?oeia i?e?iaeu, ?enoaiay anoanoaiciaieai, a naith
i/a?aaeue ieacuaaao aicaeaenoaea ia ae?oaea io?anee iaoee, a oii /enea e
nioeeaeueii-aoiaieoa?iua. Oaeia aicaeaenoaea au?aaeaaony a
?ani?ino?aiaiee eiioeaioeee, noaiaea?oia e e?eoa?eaa iao/iinoe
anoanoaiciaiey ia ae?oaea io?anee iao/iiai iiciaiey. Iau/ii eiaiii
eiioeaioeee e iaoiaeu iaoe i i?e?iaea e iao/iay ea?oeia ie?a a oeaeii a
cia/eoaeueiie noaiaie ii?aaeaeytho iao/iue eeeiao yiioe. A oaniaeoai
acaeiiaeaenoaee n ?acaeoeai iaoe i i?e?iaea ia/eiay n XVI a.
?acaeaaeanue iaoaiaoeea, eioi?ay nicaeaea aeey anoanoaiciaiey oaeea
iiuiua iaoaiaoe/aneea iaoiaeu, eae aeeooa?aioeeaeueiia e eioaa?aeueiia
en/eneaiey.

Iaeiaei aac o/aoa ?acoeueoaoia enneaaeiaaiey yeiiiie/aneeo, nioeeaeueiuo
e aoiaieoa?iuo iaoe iaoe ciaiey i ie?a a oeaeii aoaeoo caaaaeiii
iaiieiuie e ia?aie/aiiuie. Iiyoiio neaaeoao ?acee/aoue iao/ioth ea?oeio
ie?a, eioi?ay oi?ie?oaony ec aeinoeaeaiee e ?acoeueoaoia iiciaiey iaoe i
i?e?iaea, e ea?oeio ie?a a oeaeii, a eioi?oth a ea/anoaa iaiaoiaeeiiai
aeiiieiaiey aoiaeyo aaaeiaeoea eiioeaioeee e i?eioeeiu iauanoaaiiuo
iaoe.

A ?aieao aeenoeeieeiu “Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey”
?anniao?eaaaony iao/iay ea?oeia i?e?iaeu oaeie, eaeie iia enoi?e/anee
noi?ie?iaaeanue a i?ioeanna ?acaeoey anoanoaiciaiey. Iaeiaei aua aei
iiyaeaiey iao/iuo i?aaenoaaeaiee i i?e?iaea ethaee caaeoiuaaeenue ia
ie?oaeathuai eo ie?a, aai no?iaiee e i?ienoiaeaeaiee. Oaeea
i?aaenoaaeaiey aia/aea aunooiaee a oi?ia ieoia e ia?aaeaaaeenue io
iaeiiai iieieaiey e ae?oaiio. Niaeanii ae?aaiaeoei ieoai, aanue aeaeeiue
oii?yaei/aiiue e i?aaieciaaiiue ie?, eioi?ue a aioe/iinoe iacuaaeny
einiinii, i?iecioae ec aeaci?aaieciaaiiiai ie?a, eee iaoii?yaei/aiiiai
oaina.

A aioe/iie iaoo?oeeinioee, a /anoiinoe o A?enoioaey (384 — 322 aei i.
y.), iiaeiaiua acaeyaeu iaoee naia io?aaeaiea a aeaeaiee ie?a ia
niaa?oaiiue iaaaniue einiin e ianiaa?oaiiue caiiie ie?. Nai oa?iei
“einiin” iaicia/ae o ae?aaieo a?aeia anyeoth oii?yaei/aiiinoue,
i?aaiecaoeeth, niaa?oainoai, niaeaniaaiiinoue e aeaaea aiaiiue no?ie.
Eiaiii oaeia niaa?oainoai e i?aaieciaaiiinoue i?eienuaaeenue iaaaniiio
ie?o.

N iiyaeaieai yenia?eiaioaeueiiai anoanoaiciaiey e iao/iie ano?iiiiee a
yiioo Aic?iaeaeaiey auea iieacaia yaiay ianinoiyoaeueiinoue iiaeiaiuo
i?aaenoaaeaiee. Iiaua acaeyaeu ia ie?oaeathuee ie? noaee iniiauaaoueny
ia ?acoeueoaoao e auaiaeao anoanoaiciaiey niioaaonoaothuae yiioe e
noaee, iiyoiio iacuaaoueny iao/iie ea?oeiie ie?a.

Iaeiie ec ia?auo aicieeea iaoaienoe/aneay ea?oeia ie?a, iineieueeo
eco/aiea i?e?iaeu ia/aeinue n aiaeeca i?inoaeoae oi?iu aeaeaeaiey
iaoa?ee — iaoaie/aneiai ia?aiauaiey oae.

Noaiiaeaiea iaoaienoe/aneie ea?oeiu ie?a ni?aaaaeeeai naycuaatho n
eiaiai Aaeeeai Aaeeeay, eioi?ue onoaiiaee caeiiu aeaeaeaiey naiaiaeii
iaaeathueo oae e noi?ioee?iaae iaoaie/aneee i?eioeei ioiineoaeueiinoe.
Ii aeaaiay caneoaa Aaeeeay a oii, /oi ii aia?aua i?eiaiee aeey
enneaaeiaaiey i?e?iaeu yenia?eiaioaeueiue iaoiae aianoa n ecia?aieyie
enneaaeoaiuo aaee/ei e iaoaiaoe/aneie ia?aaioeie ?acoeueoaoia ecia?aiee.
Anee yenia?eiaiou nii?aaee/anee noaaeeenue e ?aiueoa, oi iaoaiaoe/aneee
eo aiaeec aia?aua nenoaiaoe/anee noae i?eiaiyoue eiaiii ii.

Iiaia yenia?eiaioaeueiia anoanoaiciaiea a ioee/ea io iaoo?oeeinioneeo
aeiaaaeie e oiic?aiee i?ioeiai noaei ?acaeaaoueny a oaniii
acaeiiaeaenoaee oai?ee e iiuoa, eiaaea eaaeaeay aeiioaca eee
oai?aoe/aneia i?aaeiieiaeaiea nenoaiaoe/anee i?iaa?ythony iiuoii e
ecia?aieyie. Eiaiii aeaaiaea?y yoiio Aaeeeath oaeaeinue ii?iaa?aiooue
i?aaeiaa i?aaeiieiaeaiea, auneacaiiia aua A?enoioaeai, /oi iooue
iaaeathuaai oaea i?iii?oeeiiaeai aai nei?inoe. I?aaei?eiya yenia?eiaiou
n iaaeaieai oyaeaeuo oae (iooa/iuo yaea?), Aaeeeae oaaaeeeny, /oi yoio
iooue i?iii?oeeiiaeai eo onei?aieth, ?aaiiio 9,81iao?o a naeoiaeo ca
naeoiaeo.

Ec ano?iiiie/aneeo aeinoeaeaiee Aaeeeay neaaeoao ioiaoeoue ioe?uoea
niooieeia THieoa?a, a oaeaea iaia?oaeaiea iyoai ia Nieioea e ai? ia
Eoia, /oi iiae?uaaei i?aaeithth aa?o a niaa?oainoai iaaaniiai einiina.

Iiaue e?oiiue oaa a ?acaeoee anoanoaiciaiey iciaiaiiaaeny ioe?uoeai
caeiiia aeaeaeaiey ieaiao. Anee Aaeeeae eiae aeaei n eco/aieai
aeaeaeaiey caiiuo oae, oi iaiaoeeee ano?iiii Eiaaii Eaiea? (1571—1630)
iniaeeeny enneaaeiaaoue aeaeaeaiey iaaaniuo oae, aoi?any a iaeanoue,
eioi?ay ?aiueoa n/eoaeanue cai?aoiie aeey iaoee.

Oi?ie?iaaiea eeanne/aneie iaoaieee e iniiaaiiie ia iae iaoaienoe/aneie
ea?oeiu ie?a i?ienoiaeeei ii aeaoi iai?aaeaieyi:

1) iaiauaiea iieo/aiiuo ?aiaa ?acoeueoaoia e i?aaeaea anaai caeiiia
aeaeaeaiey naiaiaeii iaaeathueo oae, ioe?uouo Aaeeeaai, a oaeaea caeiiia
aeaeaeaiey ieaiao, noi?ioee?iaaiiuo Eaiea?ii;

2) nicaeaiea iaoiaeia aeey eiee/anoaaiiiai aiaeeca iaoaie/aneiai
aeaeaeaiey a oeaeii.

Ecaanoii, /oi Iuethoii nicaeae naie aa?eaio aeeooa?aioeeaeueiiai e
eioaa?aeueiiai en/eneaiey iaiin?aaenoaaiii aeey ?aoaiey iniiaiuo i?iaeai
iaoaieee: ii?aaeaeaiey iaiiaaiiie nei?inoe eae i?iecaiaeiie io iooe ii
a?aiaie aeaeaeaiey e onei?aiey eae i?iecaiaeiie io nei?inoe ii a?aiaie
eee aoi?ie i?iecaiaeiie io iooe ii a?aiaie. Aeaaiaea?y yoiio aio
oaeaeinue oi/ii noi?ioee?iaaoue iniiaiua caeiiu aeeiaieee e caeii
anaie?iiai oyaioaiey.

Oaia?ue eiee/anoaaiiue iiaeoiae e iienaieth aeaeaeaiey eaaeaony /ai-oi
naii niaie ?acoiathueiny, ii a XVIII a. yoi auei e?oiiaeoei caaiaaaieai
iao/iie iunee. Aeey n?aaiaiey aeinoaoi/ii ioiaoeoue, /oi eeoaeneay
iaoea, ianiio?y ia aa ianiiiaiiua aeinoeaeaiey a yiie?e/aneeo iaeanoyo
(ecia?aoaiea ii?ioa, aoiaae, eiiiana e ae?oaea ioe?uoey), oae e ia
niiaea iiaeiyoueny aei onoaiiaeaiey eiee/anoaaiiuo caeiiiia?iinoae
aeaeaeaiey. ?aoathuoth aea ?ieue a noaiiaeaiee iaoaieee nua?ae, eae oaea
ioia/aeinue, yenia?eiaioaeueiue iaoiae, eioi?ue iaania/ee aiciiaeiinoue
i?iaa?youe ana aeiaaaeee, i?aaeiieiaeaiey e aeiioacu n iiiiuueth
ouaoaeueii i?iaeoiaiiuo iiuoia.

Oaea a i?ioeii aaea oeceee aeiiieieee iaoaienoe/aneoth ea?oeio ie?a
yeaeo?iiaaieoiie. Yeaeo?e/aneea e iaaieoiua yaeaiey auee ecaanoiu ei
aeaaii, ii eco/aeenue iainiaeaiii ae?oa io ae?oaa. Aeaeueiaeoaa eo
enneaaeiaaiea iieacaei, /oi iaaeaeo ieie nouanoaoao aeoaieay
acaeiinaycue, /oi canoaaeei o/aiuo eneaoue yoo naycue e nicaeaoue
aaeeioth yeaeo?iiaaieoioth oai?eth.

Aeaoneee o/aiue Y?noaae (1777—1851), iiianoea iaae i?iaiaeieeii, ii
eioi?iio eaeao yeaeo?e/aneee oie, iaaieoioth no?aeeo, iaia?oaeee, /oi
iia ioeeiiyaony io ia?aiia/aeueiiai iieiaeaiey. Yoi i?eaaei o/aiiai e
iunee, /oi yeaeo?e/aneee oie nicaeaao iaaieoiia iiea. Iicaeiaa
aiaeeeneee oecee Iaeee Oa?aaeae (1791 — 1867), a?auay caieiooue eiioo? a
iaaieoiii iiea, ioe?ue, /oi a iai aicieeaao yeaeo?e/aneee oie.

Ia iniiaa iiuoia Oa?aaeay e ae?oaeo o/aiuo aiaeeeneee oecee Aeaeaein
Eea?e Iaenaaee (1831 — 1879) nicaeae naith yeaeo?iiaaieoioth oai?eth.
Oaeei iooai auei iieacaii, /oi a ie?a nouanoaoao ia oieueei aauanoai a
aeaea oae, ii e ?aciiia?aciua oece/aneea iiey. Iaeii ec ieo auei
ecaanoii e ai a?aiaia Iuethoiia e oaia?ue iacuaaaony a?aaeoaoeeiiiui
iieai, a ?aiueoa ?anniao?eaaeinue i?inoi eae neea i?eoyaeaiey,
aicieeathuay iaaeaeo iaoa?eaeueiuie oaeaie.

Iinea oiai eae iauaeoii eco/aiey oeceeia ia?yaeo n aauanoaii noaee
?aciiia?aciua iiey, ea?oeia ie?a i?eia?aea aieaa neiaeiue oa?aeoa?. Oai
ia iaiaa, yoi auea ea?oeia eeanne/aneie oeceee, eioi?ay eco/aea ciaeiiue
iai iae?iie?. Iieiaeaiea ei?aiiui ia?acii eciaieeinue, eiaaea o/aiua
ia?aoee e enneaaeiaaieth i?ioeannia a iee?iie?a. Caeanue eo iaeeaeaee
iiaua iaiau/aeiua ioe?uoey e yaeaiey.

A eiioea i?ioeiai e ia/aea iuiaoiaai aaea a anoanoaiciaiee auee naeaeaiu
e?oiiaeoea ioe?uoey, eioi?ua ei?aiiui ia?acii eciaieee iaoe
i?aaenoaaeaiey i ea?oeia ie?a. I?aaeaea anaai, yoi ioe?uoey, naycaiiua
ni no?iaieai aauanoaa, e ioe?uoey acaeiinayce aauanoaa e yia?aee. Anee
?aiueoa iineaaeieie iaaeaeeiuie /anoeoeaie iaoa?ee, naiaia?aciuie
ee?ie/eeaie, ec eioi?uo ninoieo i?e?iaea, n/eoaeenue aoiiu, oi a eiioea
i?ioeiai aaea auee ioe?uou yeaeo?iiu, aoiaeyuea a ninoaa aoiiia.
Iicaeiaa auei onoaiiaeaii no?iaiea yaea? aoiiia, ninoiyueo ec i?ioiiia
(iieiaeeoaeueii ca?yaeaiiuo /anoeoe) e iaeo?iiia (eeoaiiuo ca?yaea
/anoeoe).

Aua aieaa ?aaeeeaeueiua eciaiaiey a o/aiee i i?ino?ainoaa e a?aiaie
i?iecioee a nayce n nicaeaieai iauae oai?ee ioiineoaeueiinoe, eioi?oth
ia?aaeei iacuaatho iiaie oai?eae oyaioaiey, i?eioeeieaeueii ioee/iie io
eeanne/aneie iuethoiiianeie oai?ee. Yoa oai?ey aia?aua ynii e /aoei
onoaiiaeea naycue iaaeaeo naienoaaie aeaeaeoueony iaoa?eaeueiuo oae e eo
i?ino?ainoaaiii-a?aiaiiie iao?eeie. Oai?aoe/aneea auaiaeu ec iaa auee
yenia?eiaioaeueii iiaeoaa?aeaeaiu ai a?aiy iaaethaeaiey nieia/iiai
caoiaiey.

Niaeanii i?aaeneacaieyi yoie oai?ee, eo/ naaoa, eaeouee io aeaeaeie
caacaeu e i?ioiaeyuee aaeece Nieioea, aeieaeai ioeeiieoueny io naiaai
i?yiieeiaeiiai iooe e ene?eaeoueny, /oi e auei iiaeoaa?aeaeaii
iaaethaeaieyie. Iauay oai?ey ioiineoaeueiinoe iieacaea aeoaieoth naycue
iaaeaeo aeaeaeaieai iaoa?eaeueiuo oae, a eiaiii oyaioathueo iann e
no?oeoo?ie oece/aneiai i?ino?ainoaa -a?aiaie.

?aaiethoeeiiiua i?aia?aciaaiey a anoanoaiciaiee icia/atho ei?aiiua,
ea/anoaaiiua eciaiaiey a eiioeaiooaeueiii niaea?aeaiee aai oai?ee,
o/aiee e iao/iuo aeenoeeieei. Yoe i?aia?aciaaiey iieacaee, /oi ?acaeoea
iaoee ioithaeue ia naiaeeony e i?inoiio iaeiieaieth e aeaaea iaiauaieth
oaeoia, o. a. e oiio, /oi iacuaatho eoioeyoeaiui i?ioeannii. Oaeou
anaaaea no?aiyony iauynieoue n iiiiuueth aeiioac e oai?ee. A eaaeaeue
ii?aaeaeaiiue ia?eiae auaeaeaaaony iaeaieaa iauay eee ooiaeaiaioaeueiay
oai?ey, eioi?ay neoaeeo ia?aaeeaiie, eee ia?acoeii aeey iauyniaiey
oaeoia ecaanoiuo e i?aaeneacaiey oaeoia iaecaanoiuo. Oaeie ia?aaeeaiie a
naia a?aiy neoaeeea oai?ey aeaeaeaiey caiiuo e iaaaniuo oae, iino?iaiiay
Iuethoiiii, iineieueeo ia iaa iie?aeenue ana o/aiua, eco/aaoea
eiie?aoiua iaoaie/aneea i?ioeannu. Oi/ii oae aea ana enneaaeiaaoaee,
eco/aaoea yeaeo?e/aneea, iaaieoiua, iioe/aneea e ?aaeeiaieiiaua
i?ioeannu, iniiauaaeenue ia ia?aaeeaia yeaeo?iiaaieoiie oai?ee, eioi?oth
iino?iee Ae.E. Iaenaaee.

Iiiyoea ia?aaeeaiu, eioi?ia aaae aia?eeaineee o/aiue Oiian Eoi
(1922—1996) aeey aiaeeca iao/iuo ?aaiethoeee, iiae/a?eeaaao aaaeioth eo
iniaaiiinoue – niaio i?aaeiae ia?aaeeaiu iiaie, ia?aoiae e aieaa iauae e
aeoaieie oai?ee enneaaeoaiuo i?ioeannia. Iaeiaei O.Eoi inoaaee aac
iauyniaiey e aiaeeca aii?in i oi?ie?iaaiee naiie ia?aaeeaiu. Ii aai
iiaieth, ?acaeoea iaoee iiaeii ?acaeaeeoue ia aeaa yoaia:

– ii?iaeueiue, eiaaea o/aiua caiyou i?eiaiaieai ia?aaeeaiu e ?aoaieth
eiie?aoiuo i?iaeai /anoiiai, niaoeeaeueiiai oa?aeoa?a (oae iacuaaaiuo
aieiaieiiie);

– yeno?ai?aeeia?iue, naycaiiue n iieneii iiaie ia?aaeeaiu.

I?e oaeii iiaeoiaea iiaay ia?aaeeaia ieacuaaaony ieeae ia naycaiiie n
i?aaeieie enneaaeiaaieyie e iiyoiio aa aicieeiiaaiea inoaaony
iaiauyniaiiie. A aeaenoaeoaeueiinoe aea, eae aeaeii ec i?eia?ia
aiiiaeueiuo oaeoia, o. a. oaeoia, i?ioeai?a/aueo ia?aaeeaia, i?ioeann
aiaeeca, e?eoe/aneiai iniuneaiey e ioeaiee nouanoaothuae ia?aaeeaiu
i?ienoiaeeo oaea ia noaaeee ii?iaeueiie iaoee. Iiyoiio ?aceia e oai
aieaa aaniethoiia i?ioeaiiinoaaeaiea oeacaiiuo yoaiia ?acaeoey iaoee —
niaa?oaiii iaiainiiaaiii, e iii ano?aoeei oaaaeeoaeueioth e?eoeeo ni
noi?iiu iiiaeo aeaeiuo o/aiuo.

4. Iauay iaii?aia nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey.

A oa/aiea iineaaeieo o?ao noieaoee anoanoaiciaiea ?acaeaaeinue
iaaa?iyoii auno?i e aeeiaie/ii. Ai?eciio iao/iiai iiciaiey ?anoe?eeny
aei iienoeia oaioanoe/aneeo ?acia?ia. Cia/eoaeueii aic?inea ?ieue iaoee
a nia?aiaiiie iauanoaa. Ia iniiaa iaoee ?aoeeiiaeece?othony ii nooe ana
oi?iu iauanoaaiiie aeecie. Eae ieeiaaea aeecee iaoea e oaoieea. Iaoea
noaea iaiin?aaenoaaiiie i?iecaiaeeoaeueiie neeie iauanoaa. Ii ioiioaieth
e i?aeoeea iia auiieiyao iaiin?aaenoaaiii i?ia?aiie?othuoth ?ieue. Iiaua
eioi?iaoeeiiiua oaoiieiaee e n?aaenoaa au/eneeoaeueiie oaoieee,
aeinoeaeaiey aaiiie eiaeaia?ee e aeioaoiieiaee iaauatho a i/a?aaeiie ?ac
ei?aiiui ia?acii eciaieoue iaoa?eaeueioth oeeaeeecaoeeth, oeeaae iaoae
aeecie. Iiae aeeyieai iaoee (a oii /enea) aic?anoaao ee/iinoiia ia/aei,
?ieue /aeiaa/aneiai oaeoi?a ai anao oi?iao aeayoaeueiinoe.

Aianoa n oai, ?aaeeeaeueii eciaiyaony e naia nenoaia iao/iiai iiciaiey.
?aciuaathony /aoeea a?aieoeu iaaeaeo i?aeoe/aneie e iiciaaaoaeueiie
aeayoaeueiinoueth. A nenoaia iao/iiai ciaiey eioaineaii i?ioiaeyo
i?ioeannu aeeooa?aioeeaoeee e eioaa?aoeee ciaiey, ?acaeaathony
eiiieaeniua e iaaeaeenoeeieeia?iua enneaaeiaaiey, iiaua niiniau e
iaoiaeu iiciaiey, iaoiaeieiae/aneea onoaiiaee, iiyaeythony iiaua
yeaiaiou ea?oeiu ie?a, auaeaeythony iiaua, aieaa neiaeiua oeiu iauaeoia
iiciaiey, oa?aeoa?ecothueany enoi?eciii, oieaa?naeueiinoueth,
neiaeiinoueth i?aaiecaoeee, eioi?ua ?aiueoa ia iiaeaeaaaeenue
oai?aoe/aneiio (iaoaiaoe/aneiio) iiaeaee?iaaieth.

Iaeia ec aaaeiaeoeo eaeae aa?iiaeneie oeeaeeecaoeee – eaeay ?acaeoey
ie?a. A naieo i?inoaeoeo e ia?acaeouo oi?iao (i?aoi?ieci, yieaaiac,
eaioianeay einiiaiiey) iia ia/aea i?iieeaoue a anoanoaiciaiea aua a
XVIII aaea. E oaea XIX aae ii i?aao iiaeao auoue iacaai aaeii
yaiethoeee. Nia/aea aaieiaey, caoai aeieiaey e nioeeieiaey noaee
oaeaeyoue oai?aoe/aneiio iiaeaee?iaaieth ?acaeaathueony iauaeoia ana
aieueoaa e aieueoaa aieiaiea.

Ii a iaoeao i iai?aaie/aneie i?e?iaea eaeay ?acaeoey i?iaeaaea naaa
aei?iao i/aiue neiaeii. Aieioue aei aoi?ie iieiaeiu XX aaea a iae
ainiiaenoaiaaea enoiaeiay aano?aeoeey cae?uoie ia?aoeiie nenoaiu, a
eioi?ie oaeoi? a?aiaie ia ea?aao ieeaeie ?iee. Aeaaea ia?aoiae io
eeanne/aneie iuethoiiianeie oeceee e iaeeanne/aneie (?aeyoeaenoneie e
eaaioiaie) a yoii ioiioaiee ie/aai ia eciaiee. I?aaaea, iaeioi?ue ?iaeee
i?i?ua a yoii iai?aaeaiee aue naeaeai eeanne/aneie oa?iiaeeiaieeie,
eioi?ay aaaea iiiyoea yio?iiee e i?aaenoaaeaiea i iaia?aoeiuo
i?ioeannao, caaenyueo io a?aiaie. Oae a iaoee i iai?aaie/aneie i?e?iaea
auea aaaaeaia “no?aea a?aiaie”.

Ii, a eiia/iii n/aoa, e eeanne/aneay oa?iiaeeiaieea eco/aea eeoue
cae?uoua ?aaiiaaniua nenoaiu. A ia ia?aaiiaaniua i?ioeannu niio?aee eae
ia aiciouaiey, aoi?inoaiaiiua ioeeiiaiey, eioi?uie neaaeoao i?aiaa?a/ue
a ieii/aoaeueiii iienaiee iiciaaaaiiai iauaeoa – cae?uoie ?aaiiaaniie
nenoaiu.

A, n ae?oaie noi?iiu, i?iieeiiaaiea eaeae ?acaeoey a aaieiaeth,
aeieiaeth, nioeeieiaeth, aoiaieoa?iua iaoee a XIX e ia?aie iieiaeia XX
aaea inouanoaeyeinue iacaaeneii a eaaeaeie ec yoeo io?aneae iiciaiey.
Oeeinioneee i?eioeei ?acaeoey ie?a (i?e?iaeu, iauanoaa, /aeiaaea)
iauaai, noa?aeiaaiai aeey anaai anoanoaiciaiey (a oaeaea aeey anae
iaoee) au?aaeaiey ia eiae. A eaaeaeie io?anee anoanoaiciaiey ii eiae
naie (iacaaeneiua io ae?oaie io?anee) oi?iu oai?aoeei-iaoiaeieiae/aneie
eiie?aoecaoeee.

E oieueei e eiioeo XX aaea anoanoaiciaiea iaoiaeeo a naaa oai?aoe/aneea
e iaoiaeieiae/aneea n?aaenoaa aeey nicaeaiey aaeeiie iiaeaee
oieaa?naeueiie yaiethoeee, auyaeaiey iaueo caeiiia i?e?iaeu,
naycuaathueo a aaeeiia oeaeia i?ienoiaeaeaiea Anaeaiiie (einiiaaiac),
aicieeiiaaiea Nieia/iie nenoaiu e iaoae ieaiaou Caiey (aaiaaiac),
aicieeiiaaiea aeecie (aeiaaiac) e, iaeiiaoe, aicieeiiaaiea /aeiaaea e
iauanoaa (aio?iiinioeeiaaiac). Oaeie iiaeaeueth yaeyaony eiioeaioeey
aeiaaeueiiai yaiethoeeiiecia.

A eiioeaioeee aeiaaeueiiai yaiethoeeiiecia Anaeaiiay i?aaenoaaeyaony a
ea/anoaa ?acaeaathuaainy ai a?aiaie i?e?iaeiiai oeaeiai. Any enoi?ey
Anaeaiiie io “Aieueoiai ac?uaa” aei aicieeiiaaiey /aeiaa/anoaa
?anniao?eaaaony a yoie eiioeaioeee eae aaeeiue i?ioeann, a eioi?ii
einie/aneee, oeie/aneee, aeieiae/aneee e nioeeaeueiue oeiu yaiethoeee
i?aainoaaiii e aaiaoe/anee naycaiu iaaeaeo niaie. Einiioeiey, aaioeiey,
aeioeiey io?aaeatho caeanue ooiaeaiaioaeueiua ia?aoiaeu a yaiethoeee
iieaeoey?iuo nenoai e iaecaaaeiinoe eo i?aa?auaiey a i?aaie/aneoth
iaoa?eth.

Eiioeaioeey aeiaaeueiiai yaiethoeeiiecia iiae/a?eeaaao aaaeiaeooth
caeiiiia?iinoue – iai?aaeaiiinoue ?acaeoey ie?iaiai oeaeiai ia iiauoaiea
naiae no?oeoo?iie i?aaiecaoeee. Any enoi?ey Anaeaiiie, io iiiaioa
neiaoey?iinoe aei aicieeiiaaiey /aeiaaea, i?aaenoaao eae aaeeiue
i?ioeann iaoa?eaeueiie yaiethoeee, naiii?aaiecaoeee, naii?acaeoey
iaoa?ee.

Aaaeioth ?ieue a eiioeaioeee oieaa?naeueiiai yaiethoeeiiecia ea?aao
eaeay ioai?a: iiaia aicieeaao eae ?acoeueoao ioai?a iaeaieaa yooaeoeaiuo
oi?iiia?aciaaiee, iayooaeoeaiua aea eiiiaaoeee ioa?aeiauaathony
enoi?e/aneei i?ioeannii. Ea/anoaaiii iiaue o?iaaiue i?aaiecaoeee iaoa?ee
ieii/aoaeueii naiiooaa?aeaeaaony oiaaea, eiaaea ii ieacuaaaony niiniaiui
aieoaoue a naay i?aaeoanoaothuee iiuo enoi?e/aneiai ?acaeoey iaoa?ee.
Yoa caeiiiia?iinoue oa?aeoa?ia ia oieueei aeey aeieiae/aneie oi?iu
aeaeaeaiey, ii e aeey anae yaiethoeee iaoa?ee. I?eioeei aeiaaeueiiai
yaiethoeeiiecia o?aaoao ia i?inoi ciaiey a?aiaiiiai ii?yaeea ia?aciaaiey
o?iaiae iaoa?ee, ii e aeoaieiai iiieiaiey aioo?aiiae eiaeee ?acaeoey
einie/aneiai ii?yaeea aauae, eiaeee ?acaeoey Anaeaiiie eae oeaeiai.

Ia yoii iooe i/aiue aaaeioth ?ieue ea?aao oae iacuaaaiue aio?iiiue
i?eioeei. Niaea?aeaiea yoiai i?eioeeia caeeth/aaony a oii, /oi
aicieeiiaaiea /aeiaa/anoaa, iiciathuaai noauaeoa (a cia/eo, e
i?aaeaa?ythuaai nioeeaeueioth oi?io aeaeaeaiey iaoa?ee i?aaie/aneiai
ie?a) auei aiciiaeiui a neeo oiai, /oi e?oiiiianooaaiua naienoaa iaoae
Anaeaiiie (aa aeoaeiiay no?oeoo?a) eiaiii oaeiau, eaeeie iie yaeythony.
Anee au iie auee eiuie, Anaeaiioth i?inoi iaeiio auei au iiciaaaoue.
Aeaiiue i?eioeei oeacuaaao ia iaee/ea aeoaieiai aioo?aiiaai aaeeinoaa
caeiiiia?iinoae enoi?e/aneie yaiethoeee Anaeaiiie, Oieaa?noia n
i?aaeiinueeaie aicieeiiaaiey e yaiethoeee i?aaie/aneiai ie?a aieioue aei
aio?iiinioeeiaaiaca.

Aio?iiiue i?eioeei oeacuaaao ia nouanoaiaaiea iaeioi?iai oeia
oieaa?naeueiuo nenoaiiuo naycae, ii?aaeaeythueo oeaeinoiue oa?aeoa?
nouanoaiaaiey e ?acaeoey iaoae Anaeaiiie, iaoaai ie?a eae ii?aaeaeaiiiai
nenoaiii i?aaieciaaiiiai o?aaiaioa aaneiia/ii iiiaiia?aciie
iaoa?eaeueiie i?e?iaeu. Iiieiaiea aea niaea?aeaiey oaeeo oieaa?naeueiuo
naycae, aeoaeiiiai aioo?aiiaai aaeeinoaa no?oeoo?u iaoaai ie?a
(Anaeaiiie) aeaao eeth/ e oai?aoe/aneiio e ie?iaicc?ai/aneiio
iainiiaaieth i?ia?aii e i?iaeoia aoaeouae einie/aneie aeayoaeueiinoe
/aeiaa/aneie oeeaeeecaoeee.

A ianoiyuaa a?aiy eaeay aeiaaeueiiai yaiethoeeiiecia – yoi ia oieueei
eiinoaoe?othuaa iieiaeaiea, ii e ?aaoeyoeaiue i?eioeei. N iaeiie
noi?iiu, ii aeaao i?aaenoaaeaiea i ie?a eae i oeaeinoiinoe, iicaieyao
iuneeoue iauea caeiiu auoey a eo aaeeinoaa e, n ae?oaie noi?iiu,
i?eaioe?oao nia?aiaiiia anoanoaiciaiea ia auyaeaiea eiie?aoiuo
caeiiiia?iinoae aeiaaeueiie yaiethoeee iaoa?ee ia anao aa no?oeoo?iuo
o?iaiyo, ia anao yoaiao aa naiii?aaiecaoeee.

A XXI aaea anoanoaiciaiea, ii-aeaeeiiio, anooiaao a iiaoth enoi?e/aneoth
oaco naiaai ?acaeoey – ia o?iaaiue iaoee, au?anoathuae ia ?aeyoeaenoneeo
iniiaaieyo e noaiiayuaeny iaoeie eioaa?aoeaiuo oaiaeaioeee.

Aeey iaoee yoiai o?iaiy oa?aeoa?ii auaeaeaeaiea ia ia?aue ieai
iaaeaeenoeeieeia?iuo, eiiieaeniuo e i?iaeaiii-i?eaioe?iai/iuo oi?i
enneaaeiaaoaeueneie aeayoaeueiinoe. Ana /aua a ii?aaeaeaiee
iiciaaaoaeueiuo oeaeae iaoee ia/eiatho ea?aoue ?aoathuoth ?ieue ia
aioo?eiao/iua oeaee, a oeaee yeiiiie/aneiai e nioeeaeueii-iieeoe/aneiai
oa?aeoa?a.

Iauaeoaie nia?aiaiiuo iaaeaeenoeeieeia?iuo enneaaeiaaiee ana /aua
noaiiayony oieeaeueiua nenoaiu, oa?aeoa?ecothueany ioe?uoinoueth e
naii?acaeoeai. Enoi?e/anee ?acaeaathueany nenoaiu i?aaenoaaeytho niaie
aieaa neiaeiue oei iauaeoa aeaaea ii n?aaiaieth n naii?aaoee?othueieny
nenoaiaie. Enoi?e/anee ?acaeaathuayny nenoaia oi?ie?oao n oa/aieai
a?aiaie iiaua o?iaie naiae i?aaiecaoeee, eciaiyao naith no?oeoo?o,
oa?aeoa?ecoaony i?eioeeieaeueiie iaia?aoeiinoueth i?ioeannia e ae?.
N?aaee oaeeo nenoai iniaia ianoi caieiatho i?e?iaeiua eiiieaenu, a
eioi?ua aeeth/ai nai /aeiaae (iauaeou yeieiaee, iaaeeei-aeieiae/aneea
iauaeou, iauaeou aeioaoiieiaee, nenoaiu “/aeiaae-iaoeia” e ae?.)

Noaiiaeaiea iaoee yoiai o?iaiy i?eaiaeeo e eciaiaieth iaoiaeieiae/aneeo
onoaiiaie anoanoaaiiiiao/iiai iiciaiey:

– oi?ie?othony iniaua niiniau iienaiey e i?aaeneacaiey aiciiaeiuo
ninoiyiee ?acaeaathuaainy iauaeoa – iino?iaiea noeaia?eaa aiciiaeiuo
eeiee ?acaeoey nenoaiu ( a oii /enea e a oi/eao aeoo?eaoeee);

– eaeaae iino?iaiey oai?ee eae aeneiiaoe/anei-aeaaeoeoeaiie nenoaiu ana
/aua ni/aoaaony n nicaeaieai eiieo?e?othueo oai?aoe/aneeo iienaiee,
iniiaaiiuo ia iaoiaeao aii?ieneiaoeee, eiiiuethoa?iuo i?ia?aiiao e
o.ae.;

– a anoanoaiciaiee ana /aua i?eiaiythony iaoiaeu enoi?e/aneie
?aeiino?oeoeee iauaeoa, neiaeeaoeany a aoiaieoa?iii ciaiee;

– ii ioiioaieth e ?acaeaathueiny iauaeoai eciaiyaony e no?aoaaey
yenia?eiaioaeueiiai enneaaeiaaiey: ?acoeueoaou yenia?eiaioia n iauaeoii,
iaoiaeyueiny ia ?aciuo yoaiao ?acaeoey, iiaoo auoue niaeaniaaiu oieueei
n o/aoii aa?iyoiinoiuo eeiee yaiethoeee nenoaiu. Iniaaiii yoi ioiineony
e nenoaiai, nouanoaothuei eeoue a iaeiii yecaiiey?a – iie o?aaotho e
iniaie no?aoaaee yenia?eiaioaeueiiai enneaaeiaaiey, iineieueeo iao
aiciiaeiinoe aini?iecaiaeeoue ia?aiia/aeueiua ninoiyiey oaeiai iauaeoa;

– iao naiaiaeu auai?a yenia?eiaioa n nenoaiaie, a eioi?ua
iaiin?aaenoaaiii aeeth/ai /aeiaae;

– eciaiythony i?aaenoaaeaiey eeanne/aneiai e iaeeanne/aneiai
anoanoaiciaiey i oeaiiinoii iaeo?aeueiii oa?aeoa?a iao/iiai
enneaaeiaaiey -nia?aiaiiua niiniau iienaiey iauaeoia (iniaaiii oaeeo, a
eioi?ua iaiin?aaenoaaiii aeeth/ai nai /aeiaae) ia oieueei aeiioneatho,
ii aeaaea i?aaeiieaaatho aaaaeaiea aeneieiae/aneeo oaeoi?ia a
niaea?aeaiea e no?oeoo?o niiniaa iienaiey (yoeea iaoee, nioeeaeueiay
yenia?oeca i?ia?aii e ae?.).

Anoue ana iniiaaiey n/eoaoue, /oi ii ia?a aeaeueiaeoaai ?acaeoey iaoee
ana yoe nia?aiaiiua iniaaiiinoe anoanoaaiiiiao/iiai iiciaiey aoaeoo
i?iyaeyoue naay a aua aieaa eiio?anoiuo e i/aaeaeiuo oi?iao.

Caeeth/aiea

Iaeei ec o?aaeeoeeiiiuo iao/iuo i?eioeeiia aeaneo: “ciaiea anoue neea”
Iaoea aeaeaao /aeiaaea iiaouanoaaiiui ia?aae neeaie i?e?iaeu. N
iiiiuueth anoanoaiciaiey /aeiaae inouanoaeyao naia ainiiaenoai iaae
neeaie i?e?iaeu, ?acaeaaao iaoa?eaeueiia i?iecaiaenoai, niaa?oainoaoao
iauanoaaiiua ioiioaiey. Oieueei aeaaiaea?y ciaieth caeiiia i?e?iaeu
/aeiaae iiaeao eciaieoue e i?eniiniaeoue i?e?iaeiua aaue e i?ioeannu
oae, /oiau iie oaeiaeaoai?yee aai iio?aaiinoe.

Anoanoaiciaiea a yoii niunea anoue e i?iaeoeo oeeaeeecaoeee, e oneiaea
aa ?acaeoey. N iiiiuueth iaoee /aeiaae ?acaeaaao iaoa?eaeueiia
i?iecaiaenoai, niaa?oainoaoao iauanoaaiiua ioiioaiey, ia?aciauaaao e
ainieouaaao iiaua iieieaiey ethaeae, ea/eo naia oaei. I?ia?ann
anoanoaiciaiey e oaoieee cia/eoaeueii eciaiyao ia?ac aeecie e
aeaaininoiyiea /aeiaaea, niaa?oainoaoao oneiaey auoa ethaeae.

Anoanoaiciaiea anoue iaeei ec aaaeiaeoeo aeaeaaoaeae iauanoaaiiiai
i?ia?anna. Eae aaaeiaeoee oaeoi? iaoa?eaeueiiai i?iecaiaenoaa
anoanoaiciaiea aunooiaao iiuiie ?aaiethoeeiiece?othuae neeie. Aaeeeea
iao/iua ioe?uoey (e oanii naycaiiua n ieie oaoie/aneea ecia?aoaiey)
anaaaea ieacuaaee eieinnaeueiia (e iiae/an niaa?oaiii iaiaeeaeaiiia)
aicaeaenoaea ia noaeueau /aeiaa/aneie enoi?ee. Oaeeie ioe?uoeyie auee,
iai?eia?, ioe?uoey a XVII a. caeiiia iaoaieee, iicaieeaoea nicaeaoue
anth iaoeiioth oaoiieiaeth oeeaeeecaoeee; ioe?uoea a XIX a.
yeaeo?iiaaieoiiai iiey e nicaeaiea yeaeo?ioaoieee, ?aaeeioaoieee, a
caoai e ?aaeeiyeaeo?iieee; nicaeaiea a XX a, oai?ee aoiiiiai yae?a, a
aneaae ca iei – ioe?uoea n?aaenoa aunaiaiaeaeaiey yaea?iie yia?aee;
?ane?uoea a na?aaeeia XX a. iieaeoey?iie aeieiaeae i?e?iaeu
ianeaaenoaaiiinoe (no?oeoo?u AeIE) e ioe?uaoeany aneaae aiciiaeiinoe
aaiiie eiaeaia?ee ii oi?aaeaieth ianeaaenoaaiiinoueth; e ae?.

Aieueoay /anoue nia?aiaiiie iaoa?eaeueiie oeeaeeecaoeee auea au
iaaiciiaeia aac o/anoey a aa nicaeaiee iao/iuo oai?ee,
iao/ii-eiino?oeoi?neeo ?ac?aaioie, i?aaeneacaiiuo iaoeie oaoiieiaee e
ae?.

Aianoa n oai a nia?aiaiiii ie?a iaoea aucuaaao o ethaeae ia oieueei
ainoeuaiea e i?aeeiiaiea, ii e iianaiey. *anoi iiaeii oneuoaoue, /oi
iaoea i?eiineo /aeiaaeo ia oieueei aeaaa, ii e aaee/aeoea ian/anouey.
Caa?yciaiey aoiinoa?u, eaoano?iou ia aoiiiuo noaioeeyo, iiauoaiea
?aaeeiaeoeaiiai oiia a ?acoeueoaoa eniuoaiee yaea?iiai i?oaeey, “iciiiay
aeu?a” iaae ieaiaoie, ?aceia nie?auaiea aeaeia ?anoaiee e aeeaioiuo –
ana yoe e ae?oaea yeieiae/aneea i?iaeaiu ethaee neeiiiu iauyniyoue naiei
oaeoii nouanoaiaaiey iaoee. Ii aeaei, a eiia/iii n/aoa, ia a iaoea, a a
oii, a /ueeo ?oeao iia iaoiaeeony, eaeea nioeeaeueiua eioa?anu ca iae
noiyo, eaeea iauanoaaiiua e ainoaea?noaaiiua no?oeoo?u iai?aaeytho aa
?acaeoea.

Eeoa?aoo?a:

I. Iniiaiay

1. * Aeoaieuaaa O.ss. Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey.
Iiaineae?ne, 1997.

2. ** Eaieoea N.I., Eo?aethiia N.I., Iaeeiaoeeee A.A. Neia?aaoeea e
i?iaiicu aoaeouaai. I., 1997.

3. ** Eoi O. No?oeoo?a iao/iuo ?aaiethoeee. I., 1975.

4. ** Ioaiea?a A. I iaoea. I., 1983.

5. ** Nieiiia A.O. Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey. I., 1998.

II. Aeiiieieoaeueiay

1. * Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey / Iiae ?aae. N.E. Naiuaeia.
?inoia i/Ae, 2001.

2. ** Eo/oea ?aoa?aou. Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey. ?inoia
i/Ae, 2002.

3. * Iaeaeuo A.I. Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey. I., 2002.

4. ** Neiiei A.TH. Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey. I., 2003.

5. * Nieiiaoei A.A. Enoi?ey e eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey.
I., 2002.

6. Aeoaieuaaa O.ss. Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey.
Iiaineae?ne, 1997.

7. ** Eaieoea N.I., Eo?aethiia N.I., Iaeeiaoeeee A.A. Neia?aaoeea e
i?iaiicu aoaeouaai. I., 1997.

8. Eoi O. No?oeoo?a iao/iuo ?aaiethoeee. I., 1975.

9. Ioaiea?a A. I iaoea. I., 1983.

10. ** Nieiiia A.O. Eiioeaioeee nia?aiaiiiai anoanoaiciaiey. I., 1998

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