Iineianeee Aoc
Eiaeaia?ii-yeiiiie/aneee einoeooo
Eaoaae?a: ” Oi?aaeaiey e i?aaa a AIE ”
E o ? n i a a y ? a a i o a
Ii aeenoeeieeia: “Ia?eaoeia”
Ia oaio: “ Ia?eaoeia oneoa”
Auiieiee: nooaeaio
I?iaa?ee: i?io.
Iineaa- 2003
Aiiioaoeey
A aeaiiie eo?niaie ?aaioa ?anniio?aiu ii?aaeaeaiea iiiyoey oneoae, oeiu
oneoa, oa?aeoa?enoeea oneoa, ia?eaoeiaiaua no?aoaaee a noa?a oneoa e
oae.
?ann/eoai yeiiiie/aneee yooaeo io aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee ii
niaa?oainoaiaaieth ia?eaoeiaa.
Aiaae?aiea ia?ii?eyoee ii niaa?oainoaiaaieth ca ?an/aoiue ia?eiae 5 eao
aeaao ieiei 565 294 ?oa. yeiiiie/aneiai yooaeoa i?e n?iea ieoiaaiinoe
aeiiieieoaeueiuo eaieoaeueiuo aeiaeaiee ieiei 0,1 aiaea.
Eo?niaay ?aaioa eceiaeaia ia 28 no?aieoeao iaoeiiieniiai oaenoa,
niaea?aeeony 3 noaiu, aeaeeia?aoey a eiee/anoaa 6 iaeiaiiaaiee
eeoa?aoo?iuo enoi/ieeia.
Niaea?aeaiea
Aiiioaoeey…………………………………………………………………….2
Aaaaeaiea………………………………………………………………………4
?acaeae 1 I?e?iaea e oa?aeoa?enoeea oneoae…………………………………5
1.1 Ii?aaeaeaiea iiiyoey oneoaa…………………………………………….5
1.2 Oeiu oneoa…………………………………………………………………6
1.3 Oa?aeoa?enoeee oneoa……………………………………………………6
?acaeae 2. Ia?eaoeiaiaua no?aoaaee aeey i?aaiecaoeee
noa?u oneoa…………………………………………………………………..11
2.1 Iaci? ?uiea ?eooaeueiuo oneoa…………………………………………11
2.2 Oi?aaeaiea aeeooa?aioeeaoeeae………………………………………….15
2.3 Eiio?ieue ea/anoaa ianeoaeeaaiey……………………………………….17
2.4 Eiio?ieue i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe………………………………………….20
2.5 Ia?eaoeia iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo oneoa………………………………………22
?acaeae 3 Yeiiiie/aneee yooaeo io aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee
ii niaa?oainoaiaaieth ia?eaoeiaa…………………………………………25
Iniiaiua auaiaeu e i?aaeeiaeaiey…………………………………………..31
Nienie eniieueciaaiiuo eeoa?aoo?iuo enoi/ieeia………………………32
Aaaaeaiea
Iaeiei ec iniiaiuo iai?aaeaiee ?acaeoey nia?aiaiiie yeiiiieee ca
iineaaeiea aeaa aeanyoea eao yaeyaony no?aieoaeueii ?anoe?ythuayny noa?a
oneoa. A aaaeoueo aa?iiaeneeo no?aiao, a oaeaea a Niaaeeiaiiuo Ooaoao
Aia?eee e ssiiiee, eiee/anoai nio?oaeieeia, ?aaioathueo a noa?a oneoa,
i?aauoaao /enei caiyouo ai anao ae?oaeo io?aneyo aianoa acyouo. Naeoi?
iauanoaaiiuo e /anoiuo oneoa a yoeo no?aiao ninoaaeyao 60 ( 70% io
iauaai iauaia iaoeeiiaeueiiai i?iecaiaenoaa. A iaaeaeoia?iaeiie oi?aiaea
oneoae ian/eouaatho i?eia?ii /aoaa?oue noiiu iauaai ie?iaiai yenii?oa.
?aai/ea ianoa, naycaiiua n i?aaeinoaaeaieai oneoa, anoue ia oieueei a
o?aaeeoeeiiiuo io?aneyo iai?iecaiaenoaaiiie noa?u, a ainoeieoeao,
aaeaeiiiaieyo, aaieao, oaeaeiiioieeaoeeyo e o.i., ii e ai iiiaeo
i?iecaiaenoaaiiuo io?aneyo. N?aaee ieo ( th?enou ei?ii?aoeee, iaaeeee,
eino?oeoi?u ii iao/aieth oi?aiaiai ia?niiaea. Oneoae iieoiathony eae
ioaeaeueiuie ethaeueie, oae e aeiiioicyenoaaie, a yoii neo/aa iie
iacuaathony iio?aaeoaeueneeie. Anee aea oneoae i?aaeinoaaeythony
eiiiaieyi e ae?oaei i?aaiecaoeeyi, oi iie iacuaathony aeaeiauie.
Oaaee/aiea ni?ina ia ?aciiai ?iaea oneoae iiaeii iauynieoue aeeyieai
oeaeiai ?yaea oaeoi?ia. Ai-ia?auo, a ?acoeueoaoa ?inoa aeaaininoiyiey
aic?inei aeaeaiea iio?aaeoaeae iaeaa/eoue oaeoth ?ooeiioth ?aaioo, eae
oai?ea, i?eaioiaeaiea ieue e o.ae., /oi i?eaaei e i?ioeaaoaieth
eiaeono?ee eiioi?oa. Ai-aoi?uo, ?ino aeioiaeia e iiyaeaiea
aeiiieieoaeueiiai naiaiaeiiai a?aiaie oaaee/eee ni?in ia oeaeue ?yae
oneoa, naycaiiuo n i?iaaaeaieai aeinoaa e caiyoeyie nii?oii. A-o?aoueeo,
?ino eniieueciaaiey aunieioaoiieiae/iuo oiaa?ia a aeiiaoieo oneiaeyo
(aeiiaoiea eiiiuethoa?u, ioeueoeiaaeeeiay aoaeei- e aeaeaioaoieea,
nenoaiu aaciianiinoe) i?eaae e oaaee/aieth iio?aaiinoe a niaoeeaeenoao
ii eo onoaiiaea e ianeoaeeaaieth. *oi eanaaony aeaeiauo oneoa,
niaa?oainoaiaaiea ?uieia e oaoiieiaee oneeeaaao iio?aaiinoue eiiiaiee a
i?aaei?eyoeyo noa?u oneoa, caieiathueony enneaaeiaaieyie ?uiea,
ia?eaoeiaiauie ?ac?aaioeaie e oaoie/aneeie eiinoeueoaoeeyie. Aieaa oiai,
iaiaoiaeeiinoue nie?auaoue iinoiyiiua ecaea?aeee canoaaeyao eiiiaiee
iieoiaoue aioiaoth oneoao, a ia a?aoue ia naay aeiiieieoaeueiua
?anoiaeu, naycaiiua n naiinoiyoaeueiui auiieiaieai niaoeeaeece?iaaiiuo
caaea/. Eiiiaiee ioioii iieoiatho oneoae, iineieueeo yoi iicaieyao
ecaaaeaoue aeiiieieoaeueiuo eaieoaeiaeiaeaiee a n?aaenoaa eo
naiinoiyoaeueiiai i?iecaiaenoaa e oaeei ia?acii nio?aiyoue aeaeinoue. E,
iaeiiaoe, ana aieueoa eiiiaiee no?aiyony neiioeaio?e?iaaoue naith
aeayoaeueiinoue a oceiniaoeeaeece?iaaiiuo iaeanoyo. Iie ioeacuaathony io
aniiiiaaoaeueiuo aeaeia aeayoaeueiinoe, a /anoiinoe neeaaee?iaaiey e
ia?aaicee, noeioee?oy, oaeei ia?acii, ?anoe?aiea noa?u oneoa. Ana yoe
oaiaeaioeee, a naith i/a?aaeue, aucaaee ?ino.
?acaeae 1 I?e?iaea e oa?aeoa?enoeea oneoae
Ii?aaeaeaiea iiiyoey oneoaa
Oneoaa (service). Ethaay aeayoaeueiinoue eee aeaai, eioi?oth iaeia
noi?iia iiaeao i?aaeeiaeeoue ae?oaie. Oneoaa ii nooe naiae yaeyaony
iainycaaiie e ia i?eaiaeeo e iaeaaeaieth nianoaaiiinoueth.
Oneoaa – yoi ethaay aeayoaeueiinoue eee aeaai, eioi?oth iaeia noi?iia
iiaeao i?aaeeiaeeoue ae?oaie. Oneoaa ii nooe naiae yaeyaony iainycaaiie
e ia i?eaiaeeo e ia?aaea/a nianoaaiiinoe. A?aiaea ainoeie/iiai iiia?a,
o?aiaiea aeaiaa a aaiea (aeaiiceo), ia?aeaou ia naiieaoa, aeceo e a?a/o,
no?eaeea a ia?eeiaoa?neie, iinauaiea nii?oeaiuo ni?aaiiaaiee, i?iniio?
eeiioeeueia, ?aiiio aaoiiiaeey, eiinoeueoaoeey o aaeaieaoa ( ana yoe
aaeaaeiaaiua iia?aoeee naycaiu n i?eia?aoaieai oneoae. Iaeiaei
iaiaoiaeeii ioiaoeoue, /oi, ia?yaeo n i?iecaiaenoaii oiaa?ia, iiiaea
i?iiuoeaiiua i?aaei?eyoey oaeaea i?aaeinoaaeytho oeaeue ?yae oneoa,
n?aaee eioi?uo — aeinoaaea oiaa?a, ?aiiio e oaoie/aneia ianeoaeeaaiea
iai?oaeiaaiey, iao/athuea i?ia?aiiu ii aai yenieoaoaoeee, oaoie/aneea
eiinoeueoaoeee. Aieaa oiai, iiiaea iinoaaueee oneoa, ia?yaeo ni naiei
iniiaiui aeaeii aeayoaeueiinoe, i?iaeatho e oece/aneea oiaa?u. Iai?eia?,
aaeaeiiiaiee i?aaeeaaatho oe?ieee anni?oeiaio aethae, iaieoeia, aacao,
eioi?ua yaeythony iaiouaieaiie /anoueth iniiaiie oneoae — aaeaia?aaicee.
Aeiaieueii ?aaeei iiaeii ano?aoeoue i?aaiecaoeeth, i?aaeinoaaeythuoth
oiaa? eee oneoao a /enoii aeaea. A iiiuoea iaeoe ?acee/ea iaaeaeo
oiaa?ii e oneoaie auei au aieaa oeaeaniia?acii ?anniao?eaaoue iiiyoea
eiioeiooia “oiaa?(oneoaa” ni iiiaeanoaii aa?eaioia eiiaeiaoeee, ia/eiay
io i?aiaeaaeaiey oiaa?a e caeai/eaay i?aiaeaaeaieai oneoae (?en. 1.1).
Oe?iu iieo/atho i?aeiouanoai, auae?ay iaeaieaa iiaeoiaeyuaa iieiaeaiea
ia eiioeiooia e eciaiyy aaeain inycaaiuo e iainycaaiuo yeaiaioia a naiai
i?aaeeiaeaiee. Iai?eia?, i?iecaiaeeoaeue ano?iaiiuo eooiiue iiaeao
ea/anoaaiii oeo/oeoue naia i?aaeeiaeaiea, i?aaeinoaaeyy iieoiaoaeyi
oneoae i?ioanneiiaeueiiai aeecaeia?a e eiinoeueoaioa.
?en. 1.1 Eiioeiooi “oiaa?(oneoaa” n ?acee/iie noaiaiueth inycaaiinoe
1.2 Oeiu oneoa
A noa?a oneoa eiaaony iiiaeanoai ?aciiia?aciuo i?aaei?eyoee. Eo iiaeii
eeanneoeoee?iaaoue ii oeaeiio ?yaeo i?eciaeia. Iaeei ec ieo ( yoi oei
nianoaaiiinoe: yaeythony ee iie i?aaiecaoeeyie /anoiiai (neeaaeu,
aeeno?eauethoi?neea oe?iu, aaiee) eee ainoaea?noaaiiiai (iieeoeey,
ainoaea?noaaiiua aieueieoeu) naeoi?a. Ae?oaie i?eciae ( ?uiie, ia
eioi?ii ?aaioaao oe?ia: iio?aaeoaeueneee (no?aoiaaiea aeiiioicyenoa,
?icie/iay oi?aiaey) eee ?uiie i?aaei?eyoee (ianeoaeeaaiea eiiiuethoa?iuo
ioaeaeia). Oneoae oaeaea iiaeii eeanneoeoee?iaaoue ii noaiaie
eiioaeoiinoe n /aeiaaeii: oneoae aunieie (ia?eeiaoa?neea, iaaeeoeeineia
ianeoaeeaaiea) e ieceie eiioaeoiinoe (oei/enoee, aaoiiaoece?iaaiiua
iieee iaoei), aaea i?aaeinoaaeaiea oneoa iai?aaeaii ia iauaeou. Oneoae
iiaoo ieacuaaoue ethaee (?acee/iua eiinoeueoaoeee, ia?aciaaiea) eee
aaoiiaoece?iaaiiua ono?ienoaa (oi?aiaua aaoiiaou, aaieiiaou). Ia?aua, a
naith i/a?aaeue, aeaeyony ia oneoae, i?aaeinoaaeyaiua
aunieieaaeeoeoee?iaaiiuie niaoeeaeenoaie (aaeaieaoneea oe?iu e
aieueieoeu) e ia o?aaothuea niaoeeaeueiuo iaaueia (a?oc/ee eee oai?uee).
Aieueoia ?aciiia?acea i?aaeinoaaeyaiuo oneoa icia/aao, /oi aeey
nicaeaiey e nio?aiaiey eiieo?aioiiai i?aeiouanoaa i?iecaiaeeoaee oneoa
aeieaeiu auaeaeyoue e ?aoaoue i?iaeaiu, oa?aeoa?iua aeey eiie?aoiiai
aeaea aeayoaeueiinoe. Ianiio?y ia iiaeiaiua ?acii/oaiey a
eeanneoeeaoeee, anoue oeaeue ?yae oa?aeoa?enoee, i?enoueo anai
oneoaai.[1]
1.3 Oa?aeoa?enoeee oneoa
I?e nicaeaiee ia?eaoeiaiaie i?ia?aiiu eiiiaiey aeieaeia o/eouaaoue iyoue
oa?aeoa?enoee oneoa: iainycaaiinoue, iaioaeaeeiinoue, iaiinoiyinoai,
iaaeieaiaa/iinoue e ionoonoaea nianoaaiiinoe. Yoe oa?aeoa?enoeee aieaa
iiae?iaii ?anniao?eaathony a neaaeothueo ?acaeaeao.
Iainycaaiinoue
Iainycaaiinoue oneoa (service intangibility). Iaeiie ec iniiaiuo
oa?aeoa?enoee oneoa yaeyaony oi, /oi eo iaaiciiaeii oaeaeaoue,
iii?iaiaaoue ia aeon, iio?iaaoue, oneuoaoue eee iiithoaoue aei oiai, eae
iie aoaeoo i?eia?aoaiu.
Iainycaaiinoue oneoae icia/aao, /oi aa iaeuecy i?iaeaiiino?e?iaaoue,
o.a. aei iieoiee oneoao iaaiciiaeii oaeaeaoue, iii?iaiaaoue ia aeon,
iio?iaaoue, oneuoaoue eee iiithoaoue. Iio?aaeoaeue iiaeao aeaoaeueii
eco/eoue oeaao, oaoie/aneea iieacaoaee e ?aaioo aoaeeinenoaiu, eioi?oth
ii aeaeaao i?eia?anoe. A i?ioeaiiieiaeiinoue yoiio, eeeaio
ia?eeiaoa?neie ia iiaeao oaeaeaoue ?acoeueoao aei i?eia?aoaiey oneoae,
oae aea eae e iannaaee?u aaeaeiiiaiee eiatho anaai eeoue aeeao e
iaauaiea aacaaa?eeiie aeinoaaee a ioieo iacia/aiey.[1]
Aaeaeo ionoonoaey inycaaiuo oa?aeoa?enoee oneoae aei aa iieoiee noaiaiue
iaii?aaeaeaiiinoe i?eia?aoaiey oaaee/eaaaony. *oiau aa nie?aoeoue,
iieoiaoaee euoo “neaiaeu” ea/anoaa oneoae. Naie auaiaeu ioiineoaeueii
ea/anoaa iie aeaeatho enoiaey ec ianoa, ia?niiaea, oeaiu, iai?oaeiaaiey
e n?aaenoaa i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoae, eioi?ua iie iiaoo aeaeaoue. Oaeei
ia?acii, oeaeueth i?iecaiaeeoaey oneoae yaeyaony iiauoaiea noaiaie
inycaaiinoe oneoae a oie eee eiie noaiaie. A oi a?aiy, eae iinoaaueee
oiaa?ia noa?athony aeiaaaeoue ei aieueoa iainycaaiuo ea/anoa (nei?inoue
aeinoaaee, i?iaeeaiea n?iea aa?aioee, iineai?iaeaaeiia ianeoaeeaaiea),
iinoaaueee oneoa iuoathony naeaeaoue iineaaeiea inycaaiuie.
I?aaenoaaei naaa aaie, aeaeathuee aeiianoe aei iio?aaeoaeae eaeath i
oii, /oi ii i?aaeinoaaeyao auno?ua e ea/anoaaiiua oneoae. Aeey yoiai ii
aeieaeai naeaeaoue no?aoaaeth iiceoeeiie?iaaiey inycaaiie ai anao
aniaeoao eiioaeoa n eeeaioaie. Oece/aneay ianoaiiaea aaiea aeieaeia
niinianoaiaaoue auno?iio e yooaeoeaiiio ianeoaeeaaieth: aai eioa?uea?
aeieaeai auoue iaiieiai i?yiuie, ?iaiuie eeieyie; aioo?aiiyy ieaie?iaea
aeieaeia auoue ouaoaeueii i?iaeoiaia; i/a?aaee o ieioae eann aeieaeiu
eacaoueny eae iiaeii aieaa ei?ioeeie. Neoaeauea aaiea aeieaeiu auoue
iinoiyiii caiyouie e ii?yoii iaeaouie. Ana iai?oaeiaaiea: eiiiuethoa?u,
eiie?iaaeueiua aaoiiaou, noieu ( aeieaeii auaeyaeaoue nia?aiaiii.
?aeeaia aaiea e ae?oaea n?aaenoaa eiiioieeaoeee aeieaeiu ?aaioaoue
yooaeoeaii, au?aaeaoueny yniuie, i?inouie e ouaoaeueii iiaeia?aiiuie
neiaaie e oioia?aoeyie, eioi?ua aaeaeaaoii ia?aaeatho no?aoaaeth aaiea.
Iacaaiea e neiaieeeo naieo oneoa aaie aeieaeai auae?aoue oaeei ia?acii,
/oiau iie au?aaeaee nei?inoue e yooaeoeaiinoue aai ?aaiou. Iineieueeo
iainycaaiinoue oneoae oaaee/eaaao ?ene iaii?aaeaeaiiinoe i?e aa iieoiea,
iio?aaeoaee aieueoa i?eneooeaathony e ioeaiea oneoae ae?oaeie ethaeueie,
iaaeaee e ?aeeaiiui niiauaieyi, iiea/aiiui iinoaaueeii oneoae. Iiyoiio
iinoaauee oneoae (a iaoai neo/aa ( aaie) aeieaeai noeioee?iaaoue
iiaeaea?aeaiea iiceoeaiiai iauanoaaiiiai iiaiey, iai?aaeyy naie
ia?eaoeiaiaua oneeey ia aaoi?eoaoiuo ethaeae (no?aiynue i?iaoaeeoue a
ieo aeaeaiea ainiieueciaaoueny oneoaaie aaiea) e oaeiaeaoai?aiiuo
eeeaioia (/oiau iie ii?aeiiaiaeiaaee aaie naiei eieeaaai e ae?ocueyi).
Nenoaia ?an/aoa oeaiu ca iaai? ?acee/iuo oneoa aeieaeia auoue i?inoa e
iiiyoia.[1]
Iaioaeaeeiinoue
Iaioaeaeeiinoue oneoa (service). Oece/aneea oiaa?u nia/aea i?iecaiaeyo,
iinea /aai eo o?aiyo, caoai i?iaeatho e, a eiioea eiioeia, eo
iio?aaeytho. A ioee/ea io ieo, oneoae nia/aea i?iaeatho e eeoue caoai
i?iecaiaeyo e iio?aaeytho, i?e/ai yoi i?ienoiaeeo iaeiia?aiaiii.
Iaioaeaeeiinoue oneoa icia/aao, /oi oneoae iaeuecy ioaeaeeoue io eo
enoi/ieea, iacaaeneii io oiai, i?aaeinoaaeyaony oneoaa /aeiaaeii eee
iaoeiie. Anee oneoao i?aaeinoaaeyao /aeiaae, oi ii n/eoaaony /anoueth
oneoae. A ea/anoaa i?eia?a i?aaeeaaaai ?anniio?aoue eiioea?o. Oneoaie a
aeaiiii neo/aa yaeyaony aunooieaiea iii-a?oiiu. Iia ia iiaeao
i?aaeinoaaeoue oneoao aac i?enoonoaey iio?aaeoaeae (neooaoaeae).
I?aiiaeaaaoaeue ia iiaeao i?aaeinoaaeoue oneoao, anee a aoaeeoi?ee iao
nooaeaioia. Aneaaenoaea oiai, /oi i?e i?iecaiaenoaa oneoae anaaaea
i?enoonoaoao iieoiaoaeue, acaeiiaeaenoaea iinoaaueea e iieoiaoaey
yaeyaony iniaui aniaeoii ia?eaoeiaa oneoa. Ea/anoai eiia/iiai
i?iaeoeoa-oneoae caaeneo eae io iinoaaueea, oae e 01 iieoiaoaey.
Ioiioaiea th?eneiinoeueoa e naiaio eeeaioo aeeyao ia aai eiia/ioth
ioeaieo anaai iaai?a iieo/aiiuo oneoa. Niiniaiinoue i?aiiaeaaaoaey
aeinoe/ue acaeiiiiieiaiey ni nooaeaioaie aeeyao ia iieacaoaee eo
oniaaaaiinoe. Oaeei ia?acii, ia?niiae noa?u oneoa aeieaeai auoue oi?ioi
iiaeaioiaeai e oniaoiiio acaeiiaeaenoaeth n eeeaioaie.
Aoi?ie oa?aeoa?iie iniaaiiinoueth iaioaeaeeiinoe oneoa yaeyaony
i?enoonoaea e eioi?ia o/anoea a i?ioeanna eo i?aaeinoaaeaiey ae?oaeo
iio?aaeoaeae. Neooaoaee eiioea?oa, nooaeaiou a aoaeeoi?ee, iannaaee?u
iiacaea, iinaoeoaee ?anoi?aia i?enoonoaotho i?e i?ioeanna iio?aaeaiey
oneoae iaeiei /aeiaaeii. Eo iiaaaeaiea ii?aaeaeyao noaiaiue
oaeiaeaoai?aiey oneoaie ioaeaeueiuo ethaeae. Iai?eia?, aieueoia
neiieaiea ethaeae a ?anoi?aia iiaeao enii?oeoue aoiinoa?o eiioi?oa aeey
ae?oaeo iinaoeoaeae e nieceoue noaiaiue eo oaeiaeaoai?aiey.
Neaaeiaaoaeueii, caaea/ae iaiaaeaeiaioa yaeyaony aa?aioey oiai, /oi
iieoiaoaee, aiaea/aiiua a i?ioeann iio?aaeaiey oneoae, ia i?aiyonoaotho
iieo/aieth oaeiaeaoai?aiey ae?oaeie iieoiaoaeyie.[1]
Ec-ca iaeiia?aiaiiinoe i?ioeanna i?iecaiaenoaa e iio?aaeaiey iinoaaueee
oneoa eniuouaatho ii?aaeaeaiiua o?oaeiinoe i?e iiauoaiee ni?ina.
I?iecaiaeeoaeue oiaa?ia a iaeeaeaiee iiauoaiiiai ni?ina iiaeao
oaaee/eoue auione i?iaeoeoeee, ?anoe?eoue eeieth ianniaiai i?iecaiaenoaa
eee iaeiieoue caianu. Yoi iaaiciiaeii a noa?a oneoa, a iniaaiiinoe a
neo/aa n ?anoi?aiaie eee th?eaee/aneeie oe?iaie. Iiyoiio i?aaiecaoeee
noa?u oneoa aeieaeiu oaeaeyoue iniaia aieiaiea oi?aaeaieth ni?inii,
o/eouaay yoe ia?aie/aiey. Aunieay oeaia /anoi eniieuecoaony aeey
ia?aie/aiey ni?ina ia iaeaieaa iiioey?iua oneoae. Oaeaea eiaaony oeaeue
?yae ae?oaeo no?aoaaee aeey ?ac?aoaiey i?iaeaiu iiauoaiiiai ni?ina.
Ai-ia?auo, iinoaauee oneoa iiaeao ?aaioaoue n aieueoeie a?oiiaie, /oiau
ianeoaeeoue iaeiia?aiaiii aieueoaa eiee/anoai iio?aaeoaeae. Iai?eia?, a
?icie/iie oi?aiaea eniieuecothony aieueoea iiiauaiey aeey ianeoaeeaaiey
aic?inoaai /enea iieoiaoaeae, iii-eiioea?o niaa?ao aieueooth
aoaeeoi?eth, anee ii aoaeao i?ioiaeeoue ia ioe?uoie nii?oeaiie a?aia, a
ia a eiioea?oiii caea. Ai-aoi?uo, iinoaauee oneoa iiaeao onei?eoue
?aaioo, o.a. iao/eoueny ?aaioaoue auno?aa. Iiaeii iiauneoue
i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue o?oaea, anee iao/eoue ia?niiae yooaeoeaiaa
eniieueciaaoue ?aai/aa a?aiy. E iaeiiaoe, i?aaiecaoeey noa?u oneoa
iiaeao caaeaenoaiaaoue aeiiieieoaeueiia eiee/anoai ianeoaeeaathuaai
ia?niiaea.[1]
Iaiinoiyinoai ea/anoaa
Iaiinoiyinoai ea/anoaa oneoae (sevice variability). Iaeiie ec iniiaiuo
oa?aeoa?enoee oneoa yaeyaony oi, /oi aa ea/anoai iiaeao i/aiue neeueii
eciaiyoueny, a caaeneiinoe io oiai, eoi, eiaaea, aaea e eae aa
i?aaeinoaaeyao.
Iineieueeo i?ioeann i?iecaiaenoaa e iio?aaeaiey oneoae naycai n o/anoeai
ethaeae, eiaaony cia/eoaeueiue ?ene iaiinoiyinoaa ea/anoaa. Ea/anoai
oneoae caaeneo io oiai, eoi, eiaaea, aaea e eae aa i?aaeinoaaeyao. Eae
oaeiaia, ea/anoai oneoae i/aiue o?oaeii iiaeaeaaony eiio?ieth. Iai?eia?,
iaeioi?ua ainoeieoeu eiatho ?aiooaoeeth oiai, eoi, eiaaea, aaea e eae aa
iinoaaueea aieaa ea/anoaaiiuo oneoa, /ai ae?oaea. A iaeiie e oie aea
ainoeieoea ?aaioiee neoaeau ?aaeno?aoeee iiaeao auoue aaaeeeaui e
?aaioaoue oi?ioi, a oi a?aiy eae ae?oaie, noiyuee a ianeieueeeo iao?ao
io iaai, iiaeao auoue caieiooui e iaaeeeoaeueiui. Aeaaea ea/anoai oneoa,
i?aaeinoaaeyaiuo iaeiei neoaeauei, aa?uee?oaony a caaeneiinoe io aai
oece/aneie oi?iu e iano?iaiey ai a?aiy iauaiey n eaaeaeui iio?aaeoaeai.
Iai?eia?, ea/anoai oneoa, i?aaeinoaaeyaiuo iaeiei e oai aea aaeaieaoii,
iiaeao nouanoaaiii iaiyoueny.
I?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa i?aaei?eieiatho ?acee/iua ia?u ii eiio?ieth
ea/anoaa. I?aaeaea anaai, yoi ouaoaeueiue ioai? e iao/aiea ia?niiaea.
Iai?eia?, aaeaeiiiaiee, aaiee e ainoeieoeu o?aoyo ia?iiiua noiiu aeaiaa
ia iao/aiea naieo nio?oaeieeia, eioi?ia aiineaaenoaee io?aceony ia
iiauoaiee ea/anoaa oneoa. E?iia oiai, iiaeii iiauneoue iioeaaoeeth
neoaeaueo iooai i?eiaiaiey noeioeia, iaiin?aaenoaaiii naycaiiuo n
ea/anoaii oneoa. Aeey yoiai aaiaeyony i?aiee, oeia “?aaioiee ianyoea”,
eee ?acee/iua aiionu, caaenyuea io iocuaia iieoiaoaeae. Iiaeii oaeaea
iaania/eoue iaiin?aaenoaaiiue eiioaeo nio?oaeieeia n iio?aaeoaeyie, /oi
iicaieeo iiauneoue noaiaiue ioaaonoaaiiinoe neoaeaueo ca ea/anoai
i?aaeinoaaeyaiie oneoae. Iaeiiaoe, i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa iiaoo
iiauneoue noaiaiue iinoiyinoaa ea/anoaa, caiaiyy nio?oaeieeia
iai?oaeiaaieai (oi?aiauie aaoiiaoaie, aaieiiaoaie), a oaeaea iooai
aaaaeaiey aeaoaeueii iienaiiuo e noaiaea?oece?iaaiiuo ?aai/eo i?ioeaaeo?
(iai?eia?, oaiaoe/aneea ia?ee Oieae Aeeniay e caeoni/iua McDonaid’s)
Iaaeieaiaa/iinoue
Iaaeieaiaa/iinoue oneoa (service perishability). Iaeiie ec iniiaiuo
oa?aeoa?enoee oneoa yaeyaony oi, /oi aa iaeuecy o?aieoue n oeaeueth
iineaaeothuae i?iaeaaee eee eniieueciaaiey.
Iaaeieaiaa/iinoue oneoae icia/aao, /oi oneoao iaeuecy o?aieoue n
oeaeueth iineaaeothuae i?iaeaaee eee eniieueciaaiey. A iaeioi?uo no?aiao
a?a/e aceiatho iieaoo ca i?iiouaiioth iaoeeaioii ano?a/o, iineieueeo
oeaiiinoue oneoae eiaao ianoi oieueei a ii?aaeaeaiiue iiiaio a?aiaie e
en/acaao i?e iayaea iaoeeaioa. Iaaeieaiaa/iinoue oneoa ia i?aaenoaaeyao
iniauo i?iaeai, anee ni?in ia iaa aeiaieueii onoie/eaue. Iaeiaei, anee
ni?in iiaeaa?aeai ?acee/iui eieaaaieyi, i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa /anoi
noaeeeaathony n i?iaeaiaie. Iai?eia?, eiiiaiee iauanoaaiiiai o?ainii?oa
auioaeaeaiu eiaoue a ?aca?aa aeey iiauoaiiiai ni?ina a /anu iee aieueoa
iaoei, /ai yoi auei au iaiaoiaeeii aeey iinoiyiiiai a oa/aiea anaai aeiy
iannaaee?iiioiea.[1]
I?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa iiaoo eniieueciaaoue ianeieueei no?aoaaee
ono?aiaiey ianiioaaonoaee iaaeaeo ni?inii e i?aaeeiaeaieai. Ni noi?iiu
ni?ina, aeeooa?aioee?iaaiiia oeaiiia?aciaaiea ( iacia/aiea ?acee/iuo
oeai a ?aciia a?aiy ( iiiiaeao nianoeoue iaeioi?oth aeieth ni?ina n
ieeiauo ia?eiaeia ia ia?eiaeu iaiueoae caa?ocee. A ea/anoaa i?eia?a
iiaeii i?eaanoe ieceea oeaiu ia ?aiiea eeiinaainu e neeaeee ia
i?iaeeaaiea a ainoeieoeao a “ia?oaue” nacii. Aaeaeiiiaiee i?iaeatho
“?aca?aiua aeeaou” ni cia/eoaeueiie neeaeeie aeey oiai, /oiau caiieieoue
ionoothuea ianoa. Ni?in a iaieeiaua ia?eiaeu iiaeii oaaee/eoue oae, eae
yoi aeaeatho iaeioi?ua ioaee, i?aaeeaaay oo?enoai i?iaanoe auoiaeiua ii
niaoeeaeueii ?ac?aaioaiiie i?ia?aiia ieie-ioioneia. Ai a?aiy ieeiaie
caa?ocee eeeaioai iiaoo auoue i?aaeeiaeaiu aeiiieieoaeueiua oneoae,
iai?eia? a iaeeaeaiee naiaiaeiiai noieeea a ?anoi?aia eeeaioo
i?aaeeaaatho auieoue ia?o eieoaeeae ca noieeie aa?a. E?iia oiai,
ni?aaeoueny n aic?inoei ni?inii iiiiaaao nenoaia ?aca?ae?iaaiey, eioi?ay
?aaoey?ii i?eiaiyaony a aaeaeiiiaieyo, ainoeieoeao e a?a/aaiie i?aeoeea.
Oe?iu iiaoo i?eaeaeaoue a?aiaiiuo ?aaioieeia aeey ?aaiou a /anu iee. I?e
oaaee/aiee /enea iinooiathueo eieeaaeaee iaieiatho a?aiaiiuo o/eoaeae,
?anoi?aiu i?eaeaeatho aeiiieieoaeueiuo ioeoeeaioia, ianeoaeeaathueo
oaaee/eaathueeny iioie iinaoeoaeae. Ieeiaue ni?in iiaeii yooaeoeaii
oaeiaeaoai?youe, iicaieyy neoaeauei auiieiyoue oieueei naioth
iaiaoiaeeioth ?aaioo. *anoue ?aaiou iiaeii ia?aeiaeeoue iaiin?aaenoaaiii
ia iieoiaoaeae, iai?eia? a oieaa?iaaa iieoiaoaee naiinoiyoaeueii
oiaeiauaatho eoieaiiua oiaa?u. I?aaiecaoeee iiaoo niaianoii
iieueciaaoueny iaeioi?uie oneoaaie, eae, iai?eia?, iinooiatho ainieoaee,
niaianoii i?eia?aoay aei?iaia iaaeeoeeineia iai?oaeiaaiea. E iaeiiaoe,
oe?ia iiaeao ieaie?iaaoue naia ?anoe?aiea. Oae, aaeaeiiiaiey caeoiaao
aeiiieieoaeueiua naiieaou a iaeeaeaiee oaaee/aiey ni?ina ia
iaaeaeoia?iaeiua ia?aaicee a aoaeouai.[1]
Ionoonoaea aeaaeaiey.
Eiaaea iio?aaeoaee iieoiatho oece/aneea oiaa?u, iai?eia? aaoiiiaeee eee
eiiiuethoa?u, iie iieo/atho ee/iue aeinooi e eniieueciaaieth i?iaeoeoa
ia iaia?aie/aiiue i?iiaaeooie a?aiaie, o.a. iie aeaaeatho oiaa?ii, a i?e
aeaeaiee iiaoo i?iaeaoue aai. A ioee/ea io oece/aneeo oiaa?ia, oneoae ia
yaeythony /ueae-eeai nianoaaiiinoueth. Iio?aaeoaeue oneoae /anoi eiaao e
iae aeinooi ia i?ioyaeaiee ia?aie/aiiiai i?iiaaeooea a?aiaie. No?aoiaie
iieen aoaeao aaoei, oieueei eiaaea au iieaoeee no?aoiaie aciin e
ia?eiaee/anee i?iaeeaaaaoa aai. Ianooiaao i?acaeiee, ai a?aiy eioi?iai
ana aanaeyony, ii eioi?ue ?aii eee iicaeii caeai/eaaaony. A ioee/ea io
oiaa?a, ii iaaeieaiaa/ai. Ec-ca ionoonoaey aeaaeaiey oe?iu,
i?aaeeaaathuea oneoae, aeieaeiu i?eeaaaoue iniaua oneeey aeey oe?aieaiey
eieaeaea e i?eaeaeaoaeueiinoe naiae ia?ee n iiiiuueth iaeiiai ec
neaaeothueo iaoiaeia.
Iiiu?aiea iio?aaeoaeae e iiaoi?iiio eniieueciaaieth oneoae, eae a neo/aa
niaoeeaeueiuo noai iieaou oneoa a eiiiaiee British Airways e ae?oaeo
aieueoeo aaeaeiiiaieyo aeey iannaaee?ia, /anoi iieuecothueony
aaeao?ainii?oii.
Nicaeaiea /eaineeo eeoaia eee annioeeaoeee n oeaeueth oneeaiey /oanoaa
nianoaaiiinoe (eeoau eiiiaiee British Airways aeey iinoiyiiuo eeeaioia,
eeoau eoeeia?ia eiiiaiee Toshiba aeey aeaaeaeueoeaa iee?iaieiiauo ia/ae
e o.ae.)
Ii aiciiaeiinoe, iinoaaueee oneoa iiaoo i?aa?aoeoue iaaeinoaoie
ionoonoaey aeaaeaiey a i?aeiouanoai: iai?eia?, niaoeeaeeno ii
i?iiuoeaiiiio aeecaeio n iieiie oaa?aiiinoueth aiai?eo, /oi, iieuecoynue
aai oneoaaie, caeac/ee niiaeao nie?aoeoue ?anoiaeu, iineieueeo
aeueoa?iaoeaie yoiio yaeyaony i?eai ia iinoiyiioth ?aaioo aeecaeia?a
i?eaeeceoaeueii oaeie aea eaaeeoeeaoeee.[5]
?acaeae 2. Ia?eaoeiaiaua no?aoaaee aeey i?aaiecaoeee
noa?u oneoa
Aei iaaeaaiaai a?aiaie i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa onooiaee
oe?iai-i?iecaiaeeoaeyi ii eioaineaiinoe eniieueciaaiey ia?eaoeiaa.
Iiiaea oe?iu, ?aaioathuea a noa?a oneoa, i/aiue iaeu (naiiaeiua
ianoa?neea, ia?eeiaoa?neea, oei/enoee) e n/eoatho ia?eaoeia neeoeii
aei?iaei. Oneoae ae?oaeo i?aaiecaoeee (eieeaaeaeae, ainieoaeae)
aeeeoaeueiia a?aiy iieueciaaeenue i/aiue aieueoei ni?inii e aei
iaaeaaiaai a?aiaie ia ioaeaeaeenue a ia?eaoeiaa. O?aouee (th?eaee/aneea,
iaaeeoeeineea e aooaaeoa?neea eiiiaiee) n/eoaee, /oi iieueciaaoueny
ia?eaoeiaii iaaeinoieii. I?aaiecaoeee, i?aaeinoaaeythuea “aeaeeeaoiua”
oneoae, aeaaea e ia aeoiaee i?eiaiyoue ia?eaoeia a naiae aeayoaeueiinoe,
iineieueeo yoi auei au iaaeaai?acoiii n eo noi?iiu.
2.1 Iaci? ?uiea ?eooaeueiuo oneoa
Ethaee ?aaeei aniiieiatho i nia?oe. Anee au au caieiaeenue ?eooaeueiuie
oneoaaie ( yoi aecian, nii?eeanathueeny ni nia?oueth, e aai auaeeaaiea
oaeaea caaeneo io nia?oe ( eaeay o?aaeeoeeiiiay ia?eaoeiaiaay iieeoeea
iiaea au i?eaiaeeoueny? A iineaaeiea aiaeu iioi?iiiua ath?i ai iiiaeo
no?aiao ia oieueei eciaieee iaoiaeu naiae ?aaiou, ii e i?aaenoaaeee
iiaue iaoiae oaea?aeaiey eeeaioia e iiauoaiey naiae aeiee ia ?uiea.
N oao ii? eae a 1993 aiaeo iacaaeneiay eiienney ii oaeaaeaeaieth
Aaeeeia?eoaiee (UK Independent Television Commission) eciaieea i?aaeea
oi?aaeaiey aauaieai “aeaeeeaoiie” ?aeeaiu, aeaaeaeueoeu iioi?iiiuo ath?i
eniieuecotho oaea?aeeaio aeey oiai, /oiau oaiai?eoue c?eoaeae oieaoeoue
ca iioi?iiu caaeieai aei nia?oe. Aee?aeoi?u eiiiaiee Service Corporation
International (SCI), naiie e?oiiie a ie?a eiiiaiee ?eooaeueiuo oneoa,
eniieueciaaee yoio i?eai a ?aeeaia ia eiiaeiineii oaeaaeaeaiee a ia/aea
1994 aiaea. Iia i?eaeaeea aieiaiea 67 ouny/ /aeiaae e i?eianea eiiiaiee
40 ieeeeiiia ooioia noa?eeiaia ii aeaiiui ia naioya?ue 1994 aiaea.[1]
Aee?aeoi?u iioi?iiiuo ath?i ia/aee i?eiaiyoue ia?eaoeiaiaue iiaeoiae a
?acoeueoaoa eciaiaiee a ia?eaoeiaiaie n?aaea. Ai-ia?auo, noaoenoe/aneea
aeaiiua i nia?oiinoe iieacuaatho, /oi eiee/anoai nia?oae aei eiioea
noieaoey ninoaaeo 650 ouny/ a aiae, a iioii aua oaaee/eony. Ai-aoi?uo,
aei oneeaiey eiieo?aioeee aieueoeinoai ?eooaeueiuo oneoa inouanoaeyeinue
naiaeiuie oe?iaie. Ii eiino?aiiua eiiiaiee ia/aee ianooieaiea ia ?uiie
?eooaeueiuo oneoa. Eiaaea oe?ia SCI i?eia?aea eiiiaiee Britain’s Great
Southern e Plantsbrook, iia noaea eiiiaieae ?1 a Aiaeee, eioi?ay
caieiaea 15% ?uiea. Oe?iu, eioi?ua ia iiaee i?ioeainoiyoue ae, ?aoeee
aua?aoue ae?oaea niiniau oaaee/aiey aeiee ?uiea. Aeaaiaea?y yoiio a yoii
aeciana noae i?eiaiyoueny ia?eaoeia.
Aiaeeeneee ?uiie ?eooaeueiuo oneoa ian/eouaae 3500 oe?i, aai iai?io
ninoaaeye 650 ieeeeiiia ooioia noa?eeiaia a aiae. Iaeaiueeea oe?iu
caieiaee ieiei 60% ?uiea.
Ia?eaoeia, eioi?ue oiaaea eniieueciaaeny, naiaeeeny e iauyaeaieyi,
eioi?ua a?aiy io a?aiaie iiyaeyeenue a ianoiuo aacaoao, aea aua ?aeeaia
a “AEaeouo no?aieoeao” (“Yellow Pages”).
A ia/aea 80-o Aiaa?ae Aoaecii (Howard Hodgson), ?aaioaaoee aei yoiai a
no?aoiaii aeciana, ano?yoioe onoiyaoeeny ?uiie ?eooaeueiuo oneoa. Ii
iaia?oaeee, /oi iiaeii aeinoe/ue cia/eoaeueiie yeiiiiee n?aaenoa n
iiiiuueth aeiiieieoaeueiiai iai?aaeaiey aeayoaeueiinoe oe?iu. Ii
i?eia?ae iaeaiueeoth oie?athuoth oe?io e, eniieuecoy iiaue iiaeoiae
oi?aaeaiey oe?iie, aeiaeeny iio?ynathueo ?acoeueoaoia. Aoaecii ia/ae
?aaioo ia ?uiea iaeioe?oaiuo aoiaa a 1986 aiaeo e i?iaeieaeae ?anoe?youe
aecian ca n/ao iiauo i?eia?aoaiee.
Yoie aeenoaoaeueiie iieeoeee iineaaeiaaee aeaaiua eiieo?aiou Aoaeciia (
Great Southern e Kenyan Securities. Hodgson iicaea iauaaeeieeanue n
Kenyan Securities (29% aeoeee eioi?ie i?eiaaeeaaeao e?oiiaeoae
o?aioeocneie eiiiaiee ii ieacaieth ?eooaeueiuo oneoa Pompes Funebres
Generates) e ia?aciaaea oe?io iiae iacaaieai PFG Hodgson Kenyan, iicaea
ia?aeiaiiaaiioth a Plantabrook Group, eioi?ay noaea iaeiie ec e?oiiaeoeo
ia aiaeeeneii ?uiea.
Iinea aieiu neeyiee e iiaeiuaiee a 80-o aanue aecian ?eooaeueiuo oneoa
iiiaiye ia?eaoeiaiaoth iieeoeeo. Iaeiiaoe i?eoei iiieiaiea oiai, “/oi
aeaeaiey iio?aaeoaey” yaeythony aeaaiui aeey eiiiaiee. Iaeioi?ua ethaee
oioyo ioeiaeeoue iieoieo iaiyoieea, ae?oaea oioyo naaa aeinoieiua
iioi?iiu, eia-eoi yeiiiieo ia oeaaoao ( ana yoe ithainu ioaeii ciaoue e
o/eouaaoue a naiae aeayoaeueiinoe.[1]
Oeaiiaay iieeoeea oaeaea i/aiue aaaeia. Enneaaeiaaiea, i?iaaaeaiiia Old
Ferrous Friendly Society, eioi?ay i?iaeaao no?aoiaua iieenu ia
aiciauaiea noieiinoe iioi?ii, iieacaei, /oi n?aaeiyy noieiinoue
iioi?iiiuo oneoa oaaee/eeanue. A n?aaeiai noieiinoue iioi?ii a Aiaeee
ninoaaeyao 1022 ooioia noa?eeiaia, noieiinoue e?aiaoeee ( 806 ooioia
noa?eeiaia. Yoi aeaoaaea, /ai a Aa?iia. Iioi?iiu ai O?aioeee, iai?eia?,
noiyo 1102 ooioia noa?eeiaia, a Aa?iaiee ( 1127, a Aaeueaee ( 1159
ooioia noa?eeiaia. Ath?i ?eooaeueiuo oneoa ana /aua i?eoiaeeeinue
oa?iaoue aeia?iaieueiua e i?eioaeeoaeueiua ia?aie/aiey a iaeanoe
oeaiiia?aciaaiey, eioi?ua aaiaeeeenue Iaoeeiiaeueiie annioeeaoeeae ath?i
?eooaeueiuo oneoa. Eciaiaiey a oeaiao auaiaeiu oai oe?iai, eioi?ua
ieacuaatho oneoae ii i?aaeaa?eoaeueiie iieaoa iioi?ii (eaeay
aia?eeaioeaa). Yoi iicaieyao a?iaiaueeai iiauoaoue oeaiu ia oneoae.
Eiiiaiee, i?aaeinoaaeythuea ?eooaeueiua oneoae, eniieuecotho ?acee/iua
iaoiaeu aeey i?iaeaeaeaiey naieo oneoa. Oaeaaeceiiiay ?aeeaia e ?aeeaia
a ae?oaeo n?aaenoaao ianniaie eioi?iaoeee i?aaeiacia/aia i?aaeinoaaeoue
eioi?iaoeeth i aiciiaeiuo noaiao iieaou. Eiiiaiee i?iaiaeyo “aeie
ioe?uouo aeaa?ae” a naieo iioi?iiiuo ath?i, aaea n iiiiuueth ee/iiai
iauaiey, eeoa?aoo?u, aeaeaiiaoa?eaeia iinaoeoaee ociatho, eae
i?iaiaeyony iioi?iiu. Oioy aei neo ii? a ?eooaeueiua ath?i eeeaiou /aua
anaai i?eoiaeyo, ociaa i ieo iiianeuoea eee ii ?aeiiaiaeaoeeyi.
Ana aeinoeaeaiey a iaeanoe ia?eaoeiaa a noa?a ?eooaeueiuo oneoa a 90-a
aiaeu iniiauaathony ia i?aaeiieiaeaiee, /oi ioiioaiea /aeiaaea e nia?oe
iaiyaony, /oi ethaee noaee na?ueaciaa ioiineoueny e “noieiinoe nia?oe” e
iiyoiio ana aieueoa ethaeae caaeoiuaathony i iaecaaaeiii e ieaie?otho
iaia?aae “ia neo/ae /aai”.
Oyaeaei i?eo/eoue ethaeae aeoiaoue i nia?oe ca?aiaa. Anee aea yoi
oaeaaony, oiaaea ethaee noaiiayony aieaa ecia?aoaoaeueiuie a niiniaa
i?ieoe naie iineaaeiee iooue (iai?eia?, iaeei /aeiaae aae?oa caoioae,
/oiau ia aai iioi?iiao ea?ae aeaeac-aaiae), ii aieueoeinoai eeeaioia
i?aaeii/eoatho o?aaeeoeeiiiua iioi?iiu.
A ssiiiee, iai?eia?, iioi?iiu ioia/atho n aieueoei ?aciaoii, /ai ia
Caiaaea. A ath?i ?eooaeueiuo oneoa Gyokuzenin 60-ieiooiua iioi?iiu “n
iocueie e naaoii” noiyo 3 ouny/e ooioia noa?eeiaia. Ooo neioace?iaaiiua
aoaeaeenoneea ianiiiaiey, niaaeeiaiiua n ouaoaeueii naeaeaiiui eaca?iui
oio, ia?aiinyo
nia?oue a iiaue ie? aunieeo oaoiieiaee. A iaeioi?uo oieeeneeo ath?i,
i?aaenoaaeythueo “iieiue eiiieaen” oneoa, oeaia iioi?ii iiaeao
i?aauoaoue 25 ouny/ ooioia noa?eeiaia.
Ecai?ioeeaua a?iaiaueee-aecianiaiu aeiiieieee iniiaioth naith
aeayoaeueiinoue, caaaaey ieie-ioaee aeey oao, eoi i?eaoae ia iioi?iiu
ecaeaeaea. A?iaiaueee aeeth/atho a n/ao “aeiiieieoaeueiua oneoae”,
eioi?ua i?eaiaeyo e oaaee/aieth ia 50% noieiinoe ianeoaeeaaiey eaaeaeiai
eeeaioa.[1]
Aieaa oiai, i?aaiecaoeeyie noa?u oneoa ai?acaei oyaeaeaa oi?aaeyoue,
eniieuecoy oieueei o?aaeeoeeiiiua iiaeoiaeu e ia?eaoeiao. A
i?iecaiaenoaaiiie noa?a na?eeiua oiaa?u noaiaea?oece?iaaiu e iaeeaeatho
naiaai iieoiaoaey ia iieeao iaaaceiia. A ioee/ea io ieo, oneoaa
nicaeaaony i?e iaiin?aaenoaaiiii acaeiiaeaenoaee iieoiaoaey e
nio?oaeieea. Oaeei ia?acii, iinoaauee oneoa aeieaeai oaeaeyoue
ia?aii/a?aaeiia aieiaiea yooaeoeaiiio acaeiiaeaenoaeth n iio?aaeoaeai,
/oiau nicaeaoue iaeaunooth oeaiiinoue ai a?aiy i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoae.
Yooaeoeaiia acaeiiaeaenoaea, a naith i/a?aaeue, caaeneo io iaaueia
ia?niiaea, iaiin?aaenoaaiii i?aaeinoaaeythuaai oneoao, a oaeaea io
oaoiieiaee i?iecaiaenoaa e niioonoaothueo i?ioeannia, iiiiaathueo
nio?oaeieeai a i?aaeinoaaeaiee oneoae.
Oae, i?aoniaaathuea eiiiaiee noa?u oneoa eiioeaio?e?otho aieiaiea
iaeiia?aiaiii eae ia naieo neoaeaueo, oae e ia iieoiaoaeyo. Iie oi?ioi
iiieiatho cia/aiea oeaii/ee “oneoaa-i?eaueue”, eioi?ay naycuaaao
i?eaueue eiiiaiee noa?u oneoa n oaeiaeaoai?aieai neoaeaueo e eeeaioia.
Yoa oeaii/ea ninoieo ec iyoe caaiueaa.
?acoiiay i?eaueue io oneoae e aa ?ino.
Oaeiaeaoai?aiiua e aa?iua iieoiaoaee.
Oaaee/aiea oeaiiinoe oneoae.
Oaeiaeaoai?aiiinoue e aunieay i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue o?oaea neoaeaueo.
Aioo?aiiaa ea/anoai ianeoaeeaaiey.
Oaeei ia?acii, aeinoeaeaiea aunieeo iieacaoaeae i?eauee e ?inoa
ia/eiaaony n caaiou i oao, eoi caaioeony i iieoiaoaeyo. Ana yoi
icia/aao, /oi ia?eaoeia oneoa o?aaoao aieueoa, /ai i?inoi o?aaeeoeeiiiue
ia?eaoeia, iniiaaiiue ia /aou?ao ?. Ia ?en. 1.2 iieacaii, /oi ia?eaoeia
oneoa o?aaoao i?iaaaeaiey eae aioo?aiiaai, oae e aeaoonoi?iiiaai
ia?eaoeiaa.
Aeaoonoi?iiiee ia?eaoeia (interactive marketing). Ia?eaoeia i?aaiecaoeee
noa?u oneoa, eioi?ue i?aaeiieaaaao, /oi aini?eieiaaiia ea/anoai oneoae a
cia/eoaeueiie noaiaie caaeneo io ea/anoaa acaeiiaeaenoaey iieoiaoaey n
i?iaeaaoeii.
Aioo?aiiee ia?eaoeia icia/aao, /oi i?aaiecaoeey noa?u oneoa aeieaeia
ia?auaoue iniaia aieiaiea ia ea/anoai ?aaiou ia?niiaea. Iia aeieaeia
yooaeoeaii iao/aoue neoaeaueo, ?aaioathueo n eeeaioaie, a oaeaea /oi
aini?eieiaaiia ea/anoai aioiaeoue aanue ianeoaeeaathuee ia?niiae e
?aaioa, a eiiaiaea e e iaania/aieth oaeiaeaoai?aiey iio?aaeoaey. Anee
oe?ia iaia?aaaaony i?aaeinoaaeoue oneoao iaeaunoaai ea/anoaa, eaaeaeue
nio?oaeiee aeieaeai auoue i?eaioe?iaai ia iieoiaoaey. Iaaeinoaoi/ii
eiaoue niaoeeaeece?iaaiiue ioaeae, eioi?ue caieiaaony o?aaeeoeeiiiui
ia?eaoeiaii, a oi a?aiy eae inoaeueiay /anoue eiiiaiee nouanoaoao naia
ii naaa. Ia?eaoieiae oaeaea aeieaeiu iiiu?youe anao inoaeueiuo /eaiia
i?aaiecaoeee e aiaae?aieth ia?eaoeiaa. Oaeoe/anee, aioo?aiiee ia?eaoeia
aeieaeai i?aaeoanoaiaaoue aiaoiaio ia?eaoeiao. Iao niunea ?aeeaie?iaaoue
i?aainoiaeiia ea/anoai oneoae aei oao ii?, iiea ia?niiae ia niiaeao aai
iaania/eoue.
Aioo?aiiee ia?eaoeia (internal marketing). Ia?eaoeia i?aaiecaoeee noa?u
oneoa, eniieuecoaiue aeey iao/aiey e yooaeoeaiie iioeaaoeee
nio?oaeieeia, iaiin?aaenoaaiii eiioaeoe?othueo n eeeaioaie, a oaeaea
iiaeaioiaea anaai ianeoaeeaathuaai ia?niiaea e ?aaioa a eiiaiaea e
iaania/aieth oaeiaeaoai?aiey iio?aaeoaey.
Aeaoonoi?iiiee ia?eaoeia icia/aao, /oi aini?eieiaaiia ea/anoai oneoae a
cia/eoaeueiie noaiaie caaeneo io ea/anoaa acaeiiaeaenoaey iieoiaoaey n
i?iaeaaoeii a i?ioeanna i?eia?aoaiey oneoae. A ia?eaoeiaa oiaa?ia
ea/anoai i?eia?aoaaiuo oiaa?ia /anoi ii/oe ia caaeneo io oiai, eae
i?eia?aoai yoio oiaa?. Ii a ia?eaoeiaa oneoa ea/anoai ianeoaeeaaiey
caaeneo eae io iinoaaueea oneoa, oae e io ea/anoaa iinoaaee. Yooaeoeaiia
acaeiiaeaenoaea iinoaaueea e iio?aaeoaey eiaao aieueoia cia/aiea aeey
oaeiaeaoai?eoaeueiie ia?aaea/e oneoae. Iieoiaoaeue noaeeo i ea/anoaa
oneoae ia oieueei ii ea/anoaaiiui oa?aeoa?enoeeai (enoiae iia?aoeee;
aeon aethaea, iiaeaiiiai a ?anoi?aia), ii oaeaea e ii ooieoeeiiaeueiui
oa?aeoa?enoeeai (i?iyaeyao ee aeieoi? caaioo e nio?aiyao
eiioeaeaioeeaeueioth eioi?iaoeeth, aue ee ioeoeeaio aaaeeea e
iaoiaeeoaeai). Eaaeaeia acaeiiaeaenoaea yaeyaony, naiaai ?iaea,
“iiiaioii enoeiu” aeey iinoaaueea, ai a?aiy eioi?iai o iio?aaeoaey
neeaaeuaaaony ii?aaeaeaiiia aia/aoeaiea ia oieueei ia ioaeaeueiie
oneoaa, ii e ia i?aaiecaoeee a oeaeii. Oaeei ia?acii, i?ioanneiiaeu ia
aeieaeiu n/eoaoue, /oi iie oaeiaeaoai?ytho eeeaioia, i?inoi i?aaeeaaay
oaoie/anee oi?ioaa ianeoaeeaaiea. Ia?yaeo n yoei iie aeieaeiu
niaa?oainoaiaaoue aeaoonoi?iiiea ia?eaoeiaiaua iaauee eee ooieoeee.[1]
?en. 1.2. O?e oeia ia?eaoeiaa a io?aneyo noa?u oneoa
Yooaeoeaiia acaeiiaeaenoaea iieoiaoaey n i?iaeaaoeii iiaeao
aa?aioe?iaaoue oaeiaeaoai?aiea iio?aaeoaey. Iaeiaei aeey iiaeaea?aeaiey
eioa?ana iio?aaeoaeae a aeieain?i/iii ia?eiaea e aeey eiio?iey
acaeiiioiioaiee n iieoiaoaeyie iinoaaueee oneoa aeieaeiu ?acaeaaoue
iaauee ia?eaoeiaa acaeiiioiioaiee.
Naaiaeiy, eiaaea oneeeaaaony eiieo?aioeey, iiauoathony ecaea?aeee, a
i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue e ea/anoai oooaeoathony, iaiaoiaeeii i?eieiaoue
aieaa neiaeiua ia?eaoeiaiaua ?aoaiey. I?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa
noieeioeenue n o?aiy iniiaiuie ia?eaoeiaiauie caaea/aie ( iie oioyo
iiauneoue naith eiieo?aioioth aeeooa?aioeeaoeeth, ea/anoai ianeoaeeaaiey
e i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue.[1]
2.2 Oi?aaeaiea aeeooa?aioeeaoeeae
A oneiaeyo nia?aiaiiiai ?uiea, eiaaea oeaiiaay eiieo?aioeey noaiiaeony
aieaa aeanoeie, ia?eaoieiae noa?u oneoa /anoi aiai?yo i oii, /oi i/aiue
neiaeii ioee/eoue eo oneoae io oneoa, i?aaeinoaaeyaiuo eiieo?aioaie.
Aeeooa?aioeeaoeey oneoa naycaia n ii?aaeaeaiiuie i?iaeaiaie. I?aaeaea
anaai, iainycaaiinoue e ia?acaeaeeiinoue oneoae icia/aao, /oi
iio?aaeoaee ?aaeei n?aaieaatho aeueoa?iaoeaiua i?aaeeiaeaiey aei iiiaioa
iieoiee oneoae oae, eae yoi aeaeatho iioaioeeaeueiua iieoiaoaee oiaa?ia.
?acieoeo a i?eaeaeaoaeueiinoe eee oeaiiinoe eiieo?e?othueo oneoa ia
iiaoo yaii i?ineaaeeoue iioaioeeaeueiua iio?aaeoaee. Iinoaaueee oneoa
/anoi eniieuecotho iaoaieciu oeaiiia?aciaaiey aeey aeeooa?aioeeaoeee
naieo i?aaeeiaeaiee. Iaeiaei no?aoaaeth oeaiiia?aciaaiey i/aiue auno?i
iiaoo ia?aiyoue eiieo?aiou. Aieaa oiai, aeanoeay oeaiiaay eiieo?aioeey
oiaiueoaao /enooth i?eaueue e ia niinianoaoao iiyaeaieth onoie/eaiai
aeeooa?aioee?iaaiiiai i?aeiouanoaa a aeieain?i/iie ia?niaeoeaa.
Aeueoa?iaoeaie oeaiiaie eiieo?aioeee iiaeao auoue ?ac?aaioea
aeeooa?aioee?iaaiiiai i?aaeeiaeaiey, niiniaia i?aaeinoaaeaiey e
eieaeaea. I?aaeeiaeaiea iiaeao aeeth/aoue a naay iiaaoi?neea /a?ou,
eioi?ua aeaeatho i?aaeeiaeaiey eiiiaiee ioee/athueiny io i?aaeeiaeaiey
eiieo?aioia. Iai?eia?, aaeaeiiiaiey Virgin Atlantic aeey
aeeooa?aioee?iaaiey naiaai i?aaeeiaeaiey i?aaenoaaeea oaeea
iiaiaaaaeaiey, eae i?iniio? oeeueiia ai a?aiy ?aena, ianoa iiauoaiiiai
eiioi?oa, oaeaoiiioth naycue n Caieae e nenoaiu neeaeie aeey iinoiyiiuo
eeeaioia. Aaeaeiiiaiey British Airways aeaaea i?aaeeaaaao aeey
iannaaee?ia iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo ?aenia aecian-eeanna e ia?aiai eeanna
niaeueiua ioaeaeaiey, aeooaaua n ai?y/ae aiaeie e caao?aee ia caeac. E
niaeaeaieth, a nayce n yoei aicieeaao aoi?ay i?iaeaia: aieueooth /anoue
iiaiaaaaeaiee a iaeanoe oneoa iaeuecy caiaoaioiaaoue, ii i/aiue eaaei
neiie?iaaoue. Iaeiaei i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa, ?aaoey?ii aaiaeyuea
eaeea-eeai oniaa?oainoaiaaiey, iau/ii iieo/atho oeaeue ?yae a?aiaiiuo
i?aeiouanoa, a oaeaea ?aiooaoeeth iiaaoi?a, eioi?ay iiiiaaao nio?aieoue
iieoiaoaeae, aeaeathueo iieo/aoue naiia eo/oaa.
?aciiia?acea oneoa iiae?acoiaaaao neiaeiinoue noaiaea?oecaoeee e
eiio?iey ea/anoaa oneoa. A oeaeii, aeiaieueii o?oaeii aeinoe/ue
iinoiyinoaa ea/anoaa, ii oe?iu, eioi?ua ianoie/eai eoeueoeae?otho
i?eaioaoeeth ia iio?aaeoaey e ?ac?aaaouaatho yooaeoeaiua noaiu
aioo?aiiaai ia?eaoeiaa, eae i?aaeei, a ?acoeueoaoa oaaee/eaatho
aiciiaeiinoe aeeooa?aioeeaoeee naiae ia?ee, iineieueeo ea/anoai niiniaa
i?aaeinoaaeaiey eo oneoae ia ii?yaeie auoa, /ai o eiieo?aioia.[5]
I?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa iiaoo aeeooa?aioee?iaaoue i?aaeinoaaeaiea naieo
oneoa o?aiy niiniaaie ( /a?ac ethaeae, oece/aneoth n?aaeo e i?ioeann,
eioi?ua a ia?eaoeiaa oneoa /anoi iacuaatho aeiiieieoaeueiuie o?aiy ?
(people, physical environment, process). Oe?ia iiaeao auaeaeeoueny i?e
iaee/ee aieaa niiniaiuo e iaaeaaeiuo neoaeaueo, iaiin?aaenoaaiii
eiioaeoe?othueo n eeeaioaie. A i?ioeanna yoiai eiioaeoa i/aiue iiiiaaao
yiooceaci e nii?iaea nio?oaeieeia. Ii aieaa aaaeiui oaeoi?ii oniaoa
eiiiaiee, eae oaea auei neacaii auoa, yaeyaony aeoeaio ia aioo?aiiai
ia?eaoeiaa, a oaeaea iinoiyiiii iao/aiee ia?niiaea, i?eaioe?iaaiiiai ia
iieoiaoaey. Yoe ia?u iiiiaoo oeo/oeoue ea/anoai ?aaiou nio?oaeieeia,
/oi, a naith i/a?aaeue, nio?aieo eiieo?aioiia i?aeiouanoai a niiniaa
i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoae. A eiia/iii n/aoa, eiaiii iiaeaea?aeea e o/anoea
anaai ia?niiaea, caaeaenoaiaaiiiai a “i?iecaiaenoaai iii” i?ioeanna,
aeeciaiii aaaeia aeey oniaoiiai i?iecaiaenoaa e i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoae,
a neaaeiaaoaeueii, e aeey oniaoa eiiiaiee a oeaeii.
Eiiiaiey oaeaea iiaeao ?ac?aaioaoue aieaa niaa?oaiioth oece/aneoth
n?aaeo, a eioi?ie i?aaeinoaaeyaony oneoaa. Iai?eia?, ioaee e ?anoi?aiu
oaeaeytho iniaia aieiaiea eioa?uea?o naieo iiiauaiee, iineieueeo yoi
yaeyaony iaiouaieaiie /anoueth i?aaeinoaaeyaiuo eie oneoa e iiiiaaao a
i?eaea/aiee oeaeaaie aoaeeoi?ee.
E a caaa?oaiea, oe?ia iiaeao ?ac?aaioaoue aieaa niaa?oaiiue i?ioeann
i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoae. Iai?eia?, aaie iiaeao i?aaeeiaeeoue naiei
eeeaioai aiciiaeiinoue inouanoaeyoue aaieianeea iia?aoeee ec aeiio
yeaeo?iiiui niiniaii, /oi aoaeao iaiiiai oaeiaiaa, /ai naaeeoueny a
aaoiiiaeeue, aeiae?aoueny aei aaiea, ia?eiaaoueny e noiyoue a i/a?aaee.
E iaeiiaoe, iainycaaiinoue e eciai/eainoue ea/anoaa oneoa i/aiue
oneiaeiyao i?ioeann iino?iaiey onoie/eaiai eieaeaea ia?ee oneoa. Aeey
?ac?aaioee nianoaaiiiai eieaeaea iaiaoiaeeii a?aiy, ii oaeaea ia iiaeao
auoue neiie?iaai o eiieo?aioia. I?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa, eioi?ua
no?aiyony auaeaeeoue naith oneoao, nicaeaa oieeaeueiue eieaeae, naeaeaa
aeoeaio ia neiaieeea e nicaeaiee oi?aiaie ia?ee, iieo/ao, oaeei ia?acii,
onoie/eaia i?aeiouanoai ia?aae eiieo?aioaie. Iai?eia?, eiiiaieyi Ritz,
Sheraton, Hard Rock Cafe, British Airways, Citibank, Swissair e Benetton
iio?aaiaaeenue aiaeu aeey nicaeaiey eiieo?aioii-niiniaiiai eieaeaea,
eioi?ui iie oaia?ue iieuecothony aeey nio?aiaiey naieo iiceoeee ia
?uiea. Oaeea i?aaiecaoeee, eae Lloyd’s Bank (neiaieii neeu eioi?ie
yaeyaony /a?iay eioaaeue), McDonald’s (ieeoeaoai?aieai eioi?ie yaeyaony
eeioi ?iiaeae IaeAeiiaeueae) e Iaaeaeoia?iaeiue E?aniue E?ano,
aeiaeeenue aeeooa?aioeeaoeee naiaai eieaeaea iin?aaenoaii ii?aaeaeaiiiai
neiaiea.[5]
2.3 Eiio?ieue ea/anoaa ianeoaeeaaiey
Eaa/a anaai i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa auaeaeeoueny, i?aaeeiaeea oneoae
iaiiiai aieaa aunieiai ea/anoaa, /ai o eiieo?aioia. Eae e i?iecaiaeeoaee
aei ieo, iiiaea io?anee ianeoaeeaaiey oaea i?eniaaeeieeenue e
?aaiethoeeiiiiio aeaeaeaieth ca anaiauaa ea/anoai. A iineaaeiea aiaeu
noaee ?ac?aaaouaaoueny iiiai/eneaiiua noaiaea?ou, iicaieythuea
eiio?iee?iaaoue ea/anoai oneoa, a oaeaea anaaiciiaeiua i?aiee. N?aaee
ieo ( iaaeaeoia?iaeiue noaiaea?o BS750 / ISO9000, Aia?eeaineay
iaoeeiiaeueiay i?aiey ea/anoaa eiaie Iaeeieueia Aaeae?eaeaea (Malcolm
Baldridge), I?aiey aa?iiaeneiai oiiaea eiio?iey ea/anoaa e aiaeiae/iua
iaa?aaeu a ae?oaeo no?aiao. A neaiaeeiaaneeo no?aiao, a /anoiinoe a
Oaaoeee, i?iaeaia eiio?iey ea/anoaa oneoa noaea i?aaeiaoii
iaoeeiiaeueiie caaiou. I?aaeoaeuenoai Oaaoeee aicaeaaeyao aeaeaeaiea
eiio?iey ea/anoaa iin?aaenoaii oaeeo eieoeeaoea, eae Oaaaeneee aa?iiao?
iieoiaoaeueneiai oaeiaeaoai?aiey. Iiiaea oe?iu iiiyee, /oi, i?aaeeaaay
oneoae naiiai aunieiai ea/anoaa, iie iieo/atho onoie/eaia eiieo?aioiia
i?aeiouanoai, eioi?ia i?eaiaeeo e oaaee/aieth i?iaeaae e i?eauee.
I?aaaea, i?aaeeiaeaiea oneoae aieaa aunieiai ea/anoaa iaieioaii aea/ao
ca niaie oaaee/aiea ecaea?aeae. Iaeiaei eiaanoeoeee iau/ii ieoiathony,
iineieueeo iaeaieaa iieiia oaeiaeaoai?aiea iieoiaoaeae i?eaiaeeo e eo
onoie/eaie i?eaa?aeaiiinoe e oaaee/aieth i?iaeaae.[6]
?aoaiea ninoieo a oii, /oiau i?aauneoue iaeeaeaiey iieoiaoaeae i
ea/anoaa ianeoaeeaaiey. Eae caiaoee ?oeiaiaeeoaeue American Express:
“Iaauaeoa oieueei oi, /oi iiaeaoa i?aaeeiaeeoue, e aeaeaeoa aieueoa, /ai
iaauaaoa!”. Yoe iaeeaeaiey caaenyo io i?ioeiai iiuoa, oneuoaiiuo
auneacuaaiee e ?aeeaiu oe?iu. Anee iieo/aaiua iuouaiey io oneoa,
i?aaeinoaaeyaiuo aeaiiie oe?iie, i?aauoatho iaeeaeaaiua iuouaiey, oi
eeeaiou, aa?iyoiaa anaai, niiaa ainiieuecothony oneoaaie eiaiii yoie
oe?iu. I?eaa?aeaiiinoue iio?aaeoaeae ( yoi, iaaa?iia, naiue eo/oee
iieacaoaeue ea/anoaa, eioi?ue io?aaeaao niiniaiinoue oe?iu oaea?aeeaaoue
naieo iieoiaoaeae, i?aaeinoaaeyy ei iaeaunoea oeaiiinoe. Oae, anee
i?iecaiaeeoaeue a naiai no?aieaiee iiauneoue ea/anoai no?aieony e
“ioeaaui aeaoaeoai “, oi iinoaauee oneoa no?aieony e “ioeaaie ooa/ea
eeeaioia”.[6]
Aeey aeinoeaeaiey aunieiai ea/anoaa iinoaaueeo oneoa ioaeii ii?aaeaeeoue
iaeeaeaiey oeaeaauo iieoiaoaeae ioiineoaeueii ea/anoaa ianeoaeeaaiey. E
niaeaeaieth, ii?aaeaeeoue e ioeaieoue ea/anoai oneoae iaiiiai oyaeaeaa,
/ai ea/anoai oiaa?a. Aeiaieueii oyaeaei ecia?eoue ea/anoai oneoae,
iioiio /oi aa iainycaaiinoue iiae?acoiaaaao ionoonoaea oaeeo oece/aneeo
ia?aiao?ia, eae i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue, ooieoeeiiaeueiua oa?aeoa?enoeee e
noieiinoue oaoianeoaeeaaiey, eioi?ua iau/ii eniieuecothony a ea/anoaa
enoiaeiuo aeaiiuo aeey iineaaeothuaai aiaeeca. Iai?eia?, iaiiiai
neiaeiaa i?eeoe e niaeaoaieth ii iiaiaeo ea/anoaa no?eaeee, /ai ii
iiaiaeo ea/anoaa oaia. Iaioaeaeeiinoue i?ioeanna i?iecaiaenoaa e
iio?aaeaiey icia/aao, /oi ea/anoai oneoae aeieaeii ii?aaeaeyoueny ia
iniiaa yoeo aeaoo i?ioeannia: i?aaeinoaaeaiea oneoae e oaeoe/aneia
aini?eyoea ?acoeueoaoa iio?aaeoaeai. Iaiaoiaeeii aua ?ac ioiaoeoue
o?oaeiinoe a ii?aaeaeaiee iieacaoaeae ecia?aiey ea/anoaa oneoae e
iieo/aiiiai ?acoeueoaoa. Aeaeaa a yoie aeaaa iu ?anniio?ei ia?aiao?u
ea/anoaa oneoae aieaa aeaoaeueii.
Ia i?aeoeea, /oiau ecia?eoue ea/anoai oneoae, iinoaauee aeieaeai
ii?aaeaeeoue, eaeei ia?acii iio?aaeoaee aini?eieiatho ea/anoai. Ia
iniiaaiee ?acoeueoaoia enneaaeiaaiee iiaeii naeaeaoue auaiae, /oi
iieoiaoaee ioeaieaatho ea/anoai oneoae, n?aaieaay iaeeaeaaiue e
iieo/aiiue ?acoeueoaou. Ianiaiaaeaiea iaaeaeo ieie i?eiyoi iacuaaoue
“?ac?uaii a ea/anoaa”. Neaaeiaaoaeueii, iniiaiay caaea/a ?oeiaiaeeoaey,
ioaaonoaaiiiai ca ea/anoai oneoae, caeeth/aaony a noaeaiee yoiai
?ac?uaa. I?e yoii ii aeieaeai iiiieoue, /oi ecia?yaiay aaee/eia ( yoi
ea/anoai, aini?eieiaaiia iio?aaeoaeai. Ionthaea neaaeoao, /oi
?aaeueiinoue ( yoi oi, /oi aini?eieiaaony iio?aaeoaeai, a ea/anoaii
iiaeao auoue ana, /oi aini?eieiaaony iio?aaeoaeai eae oaeiaia. *oiau
oeo/oeoue ea/anoai, ia?eaoieiaai oneoa iaiaoiaeeii ii?aaeaeeoue
eeth/aaua aeaoa?ieiaiou ea/anoaa oneoae (o.a. eeth/aaua e?eoa?ee,
eniieuecoaiua iio?aaeoaeyie aeey ecia?aiey ea/anoaa) e iaeeaeaiey
oeaeaaie aoaeeoi?ee. Iie oaeaea aeieaeiu ciaoue, eae iio?aaeoaee
ioeaieaatho oaeoe/aneoth oneoao eiiiaiee ii n?aaiaieth n iaeeaeaaiie n
o/aoii eeth/aauo e?eoa?eaa.[6]
Eaeea aea e?eoa?ee io?aaeatho ea/anoai oneoae? Iaeii ec enneaaeiaaiee
iiiiaei auyaeoue aeanyoue eeth/aauo aeaoa?ieiaio aini?eieiaaiiai
ea/anoaa oneoae. Yoe ia?aiao?u i?aaenoaaeaiu ia ?en. 1.3: noaiaiue
aeinooiiinoe (ianeieueei i?inoi iieo/eoue naiaa?aiaiiue aeinooi e
oneoaa); ?aiooaoeey eiiiaiee (ianeieueei eiiiaiey caneoaeeaaao
aeiaa?ey); ciaiey (aeaenoaeoaeueii ee iinoaauee oneoa iiieiaao ioaeaeu
eeeaioa); iaaeaaeiinoue (ianeieueei iineaaeiaaoaeueia e iaaeaaeia
oneoaa); aaciianiinoue (ia naycaii ee i?iecaiaenoai e iio?aaeaiea oneoae
n iianiinoueth e ?eneii); eiiiaoaioeey ia?niiaea (eiaaony ee o
nio?oaeieeia iaiaoiaeeiay eaaeeoeeaoeey e ciaiey aeey i?aaeinoaaeaiey
oneoae aunieiai ea/anoaa); o?iaaiue eiiioieeaoeee (ianeieueei oi?ioi
eiiiaiey aeiianea aei iio?aaeoaey nooue naiae oneoae);
iaoiaeeoaeueiinoue (ianeieueei nio?oaeieee aaaeeeau, oaeoe/iu e
aieiaoaeueiu e iio?aaeoaeyi); ?aaeoeey nio?oaeieeia (i?iyaeytho ee
nio?oaeieee aeaeaiea e niiniaiinoue auno?i i?aaeinoaaeoue oneoao);
inycaaiua oaeoi?u (naycai ee aiaoiee aeae nio?oaeieeia, oece/aneay
ianoaiiaea e ae?oaea inycaaiua oaeoi?u n ea/anoaii i?aaeinoaaeyaiie
oneoae). Ia?aua iyoue oaeoi?ia naycaiu n ea/anoaii eiia/iie oneoae, a
iineaaeiea iyoue ( n ea/anoaii i?ioeanna aa i?aaeinoaaeaiey.
Nin?aaeioi/ea aieiaiea ia ia?aiao?ao, aaaeiuo aeey iio?aaeoaeae,
eiiiaiey noa?u oneoa iiaeao iaania/eoue iaeaieaa iieiia oaeiaeaoai?aiea
iieoiaoaeueneeo iaeeaeaiee.
Oaeea aniaeou, eae iiieiaiea ioaeae iieoiaoaeae e niiniaiinoue
i?aaeinoaaeoue iineaaeiaaoaeueioth e iaaeaaeioth oneoao, a cia/eoaeueiie
noaiaie aeinoeaathony ca n/ao aioo?aiiaai ia?eaoeiaa e iinoiyiiuo
eiaanoeoeee a iiauoaiea i?ioanneiiaeecia nio?oaeieeia. ?aiooaoeey e
aaciianiinoue i?aaenoaaeytho niaie acaeiicaaeneiua oaeoi?u. Anee
iio?aaeoaeue aeiaa?yao iinoaaueeo oneoae, ii i?aaeiieaaaao, /oi
iio?aaeaiea oneoae ia naycaii n iianiinoueth eee ?eneii. Aaciianiinoue
iiaeii oi?i/eoue, i?aaeinoaaeyy aeinoaoi/iia eiee/anoai eioi?iaoeee i
ea/anoaa oneoae /a?ac ?aeeaio e/eee iiuo oaeiaeaoai?aiiuo iio?aaeoaeae.
Aeinooi e oneoaa iiaeii iaeaa/eoue, anee eiiiaiey eiaao iiiai/eneaiiua
oeeeaeu (iai?eia?, Pizza Hut, McDonald’s, Benetton). A?aiy iaeeaeaiey
iiaeii nie?aoeoue ca n/ao neio?iiecaoeee ni?ina e i?aaeeiaeaiey e/eee
iiauoaiey i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe o?oaea nio?oaeieeia.
?aaeei a noa?a oneoa oaeaaony ecaaaeaoue ioeaie. Eae au ie noa?aeenue,
aeaaea eo/oea eiiiaiee ia iiaoo cano?aoiaaoue naay io neo/aeiie
caaea?aeee iinoaaee, nai?aaoaai aeoooaena eee na?aeeoiai nio?oaeieea.
Ioaeii i?eciaoue, /oi a i?ioeanna i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoa a i?enoonoaee
caeac/eea ioeaee /anoi iaecaaaeiu. Anee eiiiaiee ia iiaoo
i?aaeioa?aoeoue iiyaeaiea ioeaie, iie, ii e?aeiae ia?a, iiaoo
eni?aaeyoue eo ii ia?a iiyaeaiey. Niiniaiinoue auno?i eni?aaeoue ioeaeo
iiaeao i?aa?aoeoue na?aeeoiai iieoiaoaey a ene?aiia i?aaeaiiiai oe?ia.
Oaeoe/anee, yoi iiaeao iiii/ue caaiaaaoue aieueoaa eiee/anoai
iieoiaoaeae e nicaeaoue aieaa aeaaii?eyoiue eieaeae, /ai anee au n
naiiai ia/aea ioeaie ia auei aiana.[6]
?en. 15.3. Eeth/aaua aeaoa?ieiaiou aini?eieiaaiiai ea/anoaa oneoae
Nia/aea iaiaoiaeeii iaaeaeeoue nio?oaeieeia, iaiin?aaenoaaiii
eiioaeoe?othueo n eeeaioaie, ii?aaeaeaiiuie iieiiii/eyie, aeaaea oaeeie,
eioi?ua auoiaeyo ca ?aiee eo iaiin?aaenoaaiiuo iaycaiiinoae. Oaeia
aeaeaae?iaaiea iieiiii/ee iicaieeo neoaeauei auno?i e yooaeoeaii
?ac?aoaoue i?iaeaiu e i?aaeioa?auaoue iooie eeeaioia.
Enneaaeiaaiey oi?ioi ecaanoiuo i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa iieacuaatho, /oi
iie iaeaaeatho oeaeui ?yaeii iaueo aeinoieinoa, naycaiiuo n ea/anoaii
oneoa. Yoe aeinoieinoaa iiaeii noiie?iaaoue a neaaeothueo ioieoao.
Aaaeouea eiiiaiee noa?u oneoa iaea?aeeiu eaeaae oaeiaeaoai?aiey aeaeaiee
iio?aaeoaeae. Iie i?eiyee aiieia ii?aaeaeaiioth no?aoaaeth aeey
oaeiaeaoai?aiey ioaeae iieoiaoaeae, eioi?ay i?eaiaeeo e onoie/eaie
eiyeueiinoe iieoiaoaeae. A eiiiaiee nicaeai niaoeeaeueiue eiieoao ii
naycyi n iio?aaeoaeyie, oeaeue eioi?iai ( iaania/eoue iinoiyiiue eiioaeo
n eeeaioaie e nicaeaoue aoiinoa?o caaiou i iieoiaoaea.
Iie iaeiieee iiiaieaoiee iiuo i?aaeaiiinoe ?oeiaiaeeoaeae eaeaa
ea/anoaa. ?oeiaiaenoai oaeeo eiiiaiee, eae Marks & Spencer,
American Express, Swissair e McDonald’s, neaaeeo ia oieueei ca
oeiainiauie iieacaoaeyie, ii e ca ea/anoaii i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoa. Iie
?ac?aaaouaatho eoeueoo?o ea/anoaa, eioi?ay iiiu?yao aunieia ea/anoai
ianeoaeeaaiey.
Eo/oea iinoaaueee oneoa onoaiaaeeaatho aunieea noaiaea?ou ea/anoaa
ianeoaeeaaiey. Iai?eia?, eiiiaiey Swissair no?aieony e oiio, /oiau 96%
(eee aieueoa) iannaaee?ia ioeaieaaee aa oneoae eae oi?ioea eee
i?aainoiaeiua; a i?ioeaiii neo/aa i?eieiathony eaeea-eeai ia?u.
Aeieaeiu onoaiaaeeaaoueny aeinoaoi/ii aunieea noaiaea?ou. Noaiaea?o,
o?aaothuee 98% oi/iinoe auiieiaiey, iiaeao iieacaoueny i?eaieaiui, ii
anee au yoei noaiaea?oii ainiieueciaaeanue Federal Express, eaaeaeue
aeaiue oa?yeinue au 64 ouny/ iinueie.
Aaaeouea oe?iu aieiaoaeueii neaaeyo ca i?ioeannii i?aaeinoaaeaiey oneoae
( eae ca naiei nianoaaiiui, oae e naieo eiieo?aioia. Iie eniieuecotho
oaeea iaoiaeu, eae n?aaieoaeueiua iieoiee, ii?inu iieoiaoaeae, a oaeaea
oi?iu aeaeia e i?aaeeiaeaiee. AEaeiau iio?aaeoaeae ( yoi i?ae?aniay
aiciiaeiinoue aeey eiiiaiee iiauneoue ea/anoai oneoae, e, anee iaeaaeaia
auno?ay e yooaeoeaiay nenoaia ?anniio?aiey aeaeia, caaioa i iio?aaeoaea
a i?ioeanna ?aaaeeeoaoeee noaiiaeony enoi/ieeii iai?aacieaeaiiiai
eiieo?aioiiai i?aeiouanoaa.
Aaaeouea eiiiaiee noa?u oneoa oaeiaeaoai?ytho iio?aaiinoe eeeaioia e
nio?oaeieeia. Iie aa?yo, /oi oi?ioea acaeiiioiioaiey n nio?oaeieeaie
i?eaaaeoo e oi?ioei acaeiiioiioaieyi n iio?aaeoaeyie. ?oeiaiaenoai /aoei
ii?aaeaeyao e niiauaao nio?oaeieeai i ieaiiaii o?iaia ea/anoaa, /oiau
neoaeauea ciaee, e /aio no?aieoueny, a iio?aaeoaee ( /aai iaeeaeaoue io
i?ioeanna acaeiiaeaenoaey n eiiiaieae.[1]
2.4 Eiio?ieue i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe
?anoouea ecaea?aeee canoaaeytho i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa iiauoaoue
o?iaaiue i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe. Yoa i?iaeaia noieo iniaaiii ino?i a
o?oaeiaieeo io?aneyo. I?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue iiaeii iiauneoue
ianeieueeeie niiniaaie.
Eiiiaiee iiaoo eo/oa iao/aoue nio?oaeieeia eee iaieiaoue iiauo, eioi?ua
aoaeoo ?aaioaoue aeia?iniaanoiaa e i?ioanneiiaeueiaa ca oo aea ieaoo.
Eiiiaiey iiaeao oaaee/eoue eiee/anoai oneoa a oua?a ea/anoao (iai?eia?,
a?a/e iiaoo i?eieiaoue aieueoa iaoeeaioia, oaeaeyy eaaeaeiio ec ieo
iaiueoa a?aiaie).
Eiiiaiey iiaeao “eiaeono?eaeece?iaaoue oneoao”, onoaiaaeeaay
aeiiieieoaeueiia iai?oaeiaaiea e noaiaea?oece?oy i?iecaiaenoai, eae
iinooieea oe?ia McDonald’s, eioi?ay i?eiaiyao eiiaaea?iue niinia a
oi/eao auno?iai ieoaiey. Aaoiiaoece?iaaiiua iinoaeiiia/iua iaoeiu,
ay?iaonu, ?ann/eoaiiua ia aieueoia eiee/anoai iannaaee?ia, e
iiiaiianoiua eeiioaao?u iaaeyaeii iieacuaatho, eae iiaeii eniieueciaaoue
oaoiieiae/aneea i?aeiouanoaa aeey oaaee/aiey iauaia auionea oneoa.
Eiiiaiee oaeaea iiaoo iiauneoue i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue, ?ac?aaaouaay
aieaa yooaeoeaioth oneoao. Niaoeeaeece?iaaiiua eeeieee aeey ioo/aiey io
oaaaeieo?aiey e noaiaea?oiua ?aeiiaiaeaoeee iiaoo nieceoue iio?aaiinoue
a aei?iaii iineaaeothuai iaaeeoeeineii ianeoaeeaaiee.
Eiiiaiee oaeaea iiaoo iiiu?youe iio?aaeoaeae e caiaia o?oaea neoaeaueo
eiiiaiee naiei nianoaaiiui. Iai?eia?, oe?iu, eioi?ua naie ni?oe?otho
naith ei??aniiiaeaioeeth ia?aae ioi?aaeie ia ii/oo, ieaoyo ii
nieaeaiiiio ii/oiaiio oa?eoo. Aua iaeei oeie/iue neo/ae ( ?anoi?aiu
naiiianeoaeeaaiey. Aaoiiaoe/aneea ia?eiai/iua n/ao/eee ia aaoinoiyieao n
eaaeinoueth caiaiytho ethaeae e yeiiiiyo a?aiy iio?aaeoaeae.
Eiiiaiee, eioi?ua iinoiyiii noaeeeaathony n eieaaaieyie ni?ina, iiaoo
iiauneoue i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue, oaaee/ea naith aeaeinoue eee eciaiea
aaee/eio ni?ina. Aeaeinoue iinoaaueea ( yoi aai niiniaiinoue eciaiyoue
i?iecaiaenoaaiiua iiuiinoe. Aa iiaeii oaaee/eoue, anee iaiyoue a?aiaiiuo
?aaioieeia eee caaeaenoaiaaoue aeiiieieoaeueiia iai?oaeiaaiea; iiaeii
oaeaea ?ac?aaioaoue niaoeeaeueiue ieai ?aaiou nio?oaeieeia e
yenieoaoaoeee iai?oaeiaaiey n o/aoii /ania iee. Aaee/eia ni?ina iiaeao
auoue eciaiaia n iiiiuueth aeeooa?aioee?iaaiiuo oeai, nicaeaiey ?aca?aia
e iiiu?aiey iio?aaeoaeae e eniieueciaaieth oneoae a iaieeiaua ia?eiaeu.
Iaeiaei eiiiaiee aeieaeiu ecaaaaoue iiauoaiey i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe ca
n/ao iioa?e ea/anoaa. Iaeioi?ua oaae ii oaaee/aieth i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe
iiiiaatho noaiaea?oece?iaaoue ea/anoai, iiauoay, oaeei ia?acii, noaiaiue
oaeiaeaoai?aiey iieoiaoaeae. Ii ae?oaea ia?u i?eaiaeyo e neeoeii
aunieiio o?iaith noaiaea?oecaoeee, /oi cia/eoaeueii iaaaeiyao
iio?aaeyaioth oneoao. Iiiuoee iinoaaeoue oneoao ia i?iiuoeaiiue eiiaaea?
eee nie?aoeoue ecaea?aeee iiaoo iiauneoue ?aioaaaeueiinoue eiiiaiee ia
ei?ioeee n?ie, ii nieaeatho aa niiniaiinoue e eiiiaaoeeyi a
aeieain?i/iie ia?niaeoeaa, a oaeaea aiciiaeiinoue nio?aiyoue aunieia
ea/anoai oneoa e aeaeinoue, ?aaae?iaaoue ia iio?aaiinoe e aeaeaiey
iieoiaoaeae. A iaeioi?uo neo/ayo eiiiaiee eaeoo ia caaaaeiiia nieaeaiea
i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe aeey nicaeaiey aieueoae aeeooa?aioeeaoeee oneoa e
iiauoaiey eo ea/anoaa.[1]
Iu ?anniio?aee no?aoaaee ?aoaiey eiie?aoiuo i?iaeai ia?eaoeiaa, n
eioi?uie iinoiyiii noaeeeaathony i?aaiecaoeee, o/eouaay niaoeeoe/aneea
oa?aeoa?enoeee oneoa. I/aiue aaaeii, /oiau a aeiiieiaiea e aiaoiaio
ia?eaoeiao i?aaiecaoeee i?aeoeeiaaee aioo?aiiee e aeaoonoi?iiiee
ia?eaoeia, /oi aeano ei aiciiaeiinoue i?aoniaoue. Eeth/aaie oaeoi?
oniaoa neaaeoao eneaoue a niiniaiinoe eiiiaiee ?acaeoue eoeueoo?o
ea/anoaa e yooaeoeaii iia?e?iaaoue oe?ieei eiiieaenii ia?eaoeiaa,
?acoeueoaoii /aai yaeyaony i?aainoiaeiay aeeooa?aioeeaoeey oneoae e
aunieia ea/anoai.[1]
2.5 Ia?eaoeia iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo oneoa
Eoaeueyineee i?iecaiaeeoaeue nii?oeaiie iaeaaeaeu caiieo a naia
?aeeaiiia aaaionoai a Eiiaeiia, /oiau iiaeoaa?aeeoue ieaiu ia onoaiiaea
iiauo ?aeeaiiuo ueoia a Aaianoyea. Iaiaoeeee aecianiai inoaiaaeeaaaony a
ainoeie/iii iiia?a a Aoeaioa ( ainoeieoea i?eiaaeeaaeeo a?eoaineie
eiiiaiee e oi?aaeyaony aia?eeaineie oe?iie. Oeth?eoneee oeeeae yiiineiai
aaiea o/anoaoao a auionea iiauo iaeeaaoeee aaeaoeeiiiie eeceiaiaie
eiiiaiee a E?eaiaeee. A?eoaineay no?ieoaeueiay oe?ia no?ieo ay?iii?o a
ssiiiee, aia?eeaineay no?aoiaay eiiiaiey ?aaioaao ia ?uiea Aa?iaiee. Yoi
anaai eeoue ianeieueei i?eia?ia ouny/ naeaeie a noa?a oneoa, eioi?ua
aaeaaeiaaii caeeth/athony ai anai ie?a. Nae/an, eiaaea iu aiai?ei i
iaaeaeoia?iaeiie oi?aiaea, iu aieueoa ia i?aaenoaaeyai naaa oiaa?u,
eioi?ua iiiauatho a eiioaeia?u e eiii?oe?otho ca ?oaaae ia ei?aaeyo.
?uiie oneoa ii naiaio iauaio auoiaeeo a ie?iaie yeiiiieea ia aaaeouaa
ianoi. Ii ioeaieai Anaie?iie oi?aiaie i?aaiecaoeee, iauai oi?aiaee
aeaeiauie oneoaaie a 1996 aiaeo ninoaaee 1,07 o?eeeeiiia yeth. Yoi ii/oe
iaeia /aoaa?oay /anoue io aaee/eiu oi?aiaiai iai?ioa oece/aneeo oiaa?ia.
Aeaenoaeoaeueii, iiiaeanoai io?aneae noa?u oneoa ( ia/eiay n aaieianeiai
aeaea, no?aoiaaiey, eiiioieeaoeee e caeai/eaay ia?aaiceaie,
iooaoanoaeyie e ?acaea/aieyie ( caieiatho nae/an a yeiiiieea ?acaeouo
no?ai ie?a aieaa 60%. Oaiiu ?inoa noa?u oneoa ai anao no?aiao ie?a
(ninoaaeaoea 16% ca iineaaeieo 10 eao) a aeaa ?aca i?aauoatho oaii ?inoa
i?iecaiaenoaaiiie noa?u.
Iaeioi?ua io?anee eiatho cia/eoaeueiue iiuo ?aaiou ia iaaeaeoia?iaeiii
?uiea. Iai?eia?, eiaeono?ey eiiia?/aneeo aaieia auea iaeiie ec ia?auo,
eioi?ay ia?aianea naith aeayoaeueiinoue ia iaaeaeoia?iaeiue o?iaaiue.
Aaiee auioaeaeaiu i?aaeinoaaeyoue iaaeaeoia?iaeiua oneoae, /oiau
oaeiaeaoai?eoue iio?aaiinoe a aaethoa e e?aaeeoao naieo ianoiuo
eeeaioia, aeaeathueo oi?aiaaoue ca ?oaaaeii. Iaeiaei a iaoa a?aiy, n
?anoe?aieai a?aieoe iaaeaeoia?iaeiie oeiainiaie aeayoaeueiinoe, iiiaea
aaiee ia/aee ?aaioaoue a ie?iaii ianooaaa a iieiii niunea yoiai neiaa.
Iai?eia?, iaiaoeeee Deutsche Bank eiaao oeeeaeu a 41 no?aia ie?a. Oae,
aeey eeeaioia ni anaai ie?a, aeaeathueo iieueciaaoueny i?aeiouanoaaie
aic?inoeo aiciiaeiinoae, nicaeaiiuo iauaaeeiaieai Aa?iaiee, Deutsche
Bank iiaeao iiaeeeciaaoue eaieoae ia oieueei ai O?aieoo?oa, ii e a
Oeth?eoa, Eiiaeiia, Ia?eaea e Oieei.
Eiaeono?ey iooaoanoaee oiaea ia/aea iienoeia iaaeaeoia?iaeioth ?aaioo.
Aia?eeaineea ainoeieoeu e aaeaeiiiaiee a i?ioeanna yeiiiie/aneie
yeniainee iinea ieii/aiey Aoi?ie ie?iaie aieiu auno?i au?inee a Aa?iia e
ia Ainoiea. Ca ieie anei?a iineaaeiaaee eiiiaiee, niaoeeaeece?othueany
ia i?iaeaaea oiaa?ia ii e?aaeeoiui ea?oi/eai, ( ?aiaa auoaaeoay ia
iaaeaeoia?iaeiue ?uiie American Express nae/an noaeeeaaaony n
eiieo?aioeeae ni noi?iiu Visa e MasterCard. Iaoiaeynue a eiiaiaee?iaeao
e ioioneao, ethaee oioyo auoue oaa?aiu, /oi niiaoo i?eia?anoe ana
iaiaoiaeeiia ii naiei e?aaeeoiui ea?oi/eai, iiyoiio iaeeaeatho, /oi eo
e?aaeeoiua ea?oi/ee i?eioo aaea oaiaeii.[1]
I?aaei?eyoey, caiyoua i?aaeinoaaeaieai i?ioanneiiaeueiuo e aeaeiauo
oneoa, oaeeo eae aoaeeo, eiinaeoeia e ?aeeaia, ?anoe?eee naith
aeayoaeueiinoue aei iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo ianooaaia ia oae aeaaii.
Iaaeaeoia?iaeiue ?ino yoeo oe?i iineaaeiaae ca aeiaaeecaoeeae
aeayoaeueiinoe eiiiaiee-i?iecaiaeeoaeae, eioi?ua iie ianeoaeeaaee.
Iai?eia?, ?ac?inoayny aei o?iaiy o?ainiaoeeiiaeueiie ei?ii?aoeee
oe?ia-i?iecaiaeeoaeue iaia?oaeeea, /oi aeaaea anee iia ?aaioaao a aeaoo
aeanyoeao no?ai, ae iaiiiai oaeiaiaa iieueciaaoueny oneoaaie iaeiie
aoaeeoi?neie oe?iu. Yoi nicaeaei iniiau aeey auno?ie iaaeaeoia?iaeiie
eiinieeaeaoeee a yoie noa?a. A eiioea 80-o aiaeia aia?eeaineay “Aieueoay
ainueia?ea” aoaeeoi?neeo oe?i neeeanue n aaoi?eoaoiuie eiiiaieyie ec
?aciuo no?ai ie?a e /ooue ee ia ca iaeei aeaiue noaea iaaeaeoia?iaeiie
“Aieueoie oanoa?eie”. Iiaeiaiui ia?acii, ii ia?a oiai eae
eiiiaiee-eeeaiou ia/aee eniieueciaaoue iaaeaeoia?iaeiue ia?eaoeia e
iaaeaeoia?iaeiua ?aeeaiiua no?aoaaee, ianeoaeeaathuea eo ?aeeaiiua
aaaionoaa e ae?oaea oe?iu, i?aaeinoaaeythuea ia?eaoeiaiaua oneoae,
ioaaoeee ?anoe?aieai naie aeayoaeueiinoe aei iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo ianooaaia.
Auno?ia ?anoe?aiea iaaeaeoia?iaeiiai ?uiea nicaeaao iiiai
i?eaeaeaoaeueiuo aiciiaeiinoae aeey i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa. Iaeiaei
yoi ?anoe?aiea oaeaea nicaeaao e iaeioi?ua iniaua i?iaeaiu. Eiiiaiee
noa?u oneoa, aeaeathuea ?aaioaoue a ae?oaeo no?aiao, ia anaaaea
i?eaaonoaotho n ?ani?inoa?ouie iauyoeyie. Anee i?iecaiaeeoaee, eioi?ua
no?aiyony i?iaeaaaoue naie oiaa?u a ae?oaeo no?aiao, iau/ii eiatho aeaei
n eiie?aoiuie oa?eoaie, eaioaie eee aaethoiuie ia?aie/aieyie, oi
iinoaaueee oneoa iau/ii noaeeeaathony n aieaa iaoeiaeiuie aa?uea?aie. A
iaeioi?uo neo/ayo i?aaeea e i?aaeienaiey, eioi?ui aeieaeia neaaeiaaoue
eiiiaiey, io?aaeatho o?aaeeoeee aeaiiie no?aiu. A ae?oaeo neo/ayo iie
no?aiyony caueoeoue ca?iaeaeathuothny io?aneue io aieueoeo
iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo eiieo?aioia n aieueoeie ?ano?naie. Iaeiaei a iaeioi?uo
ae?oaeo neo/ayo eaaeaony, /oi ia?aie/aiey anaai eeoue nicaeatho
aeiiieieoaeueiua o?oaeiinoe aeey i?iieeiiaaiey ca?oaaaeiuo eiiiaiee.[1]
Aieueoeinoai i?iiuoeaiiuo no?ai oioyo, /oiau eo aaiee, no?aoiaua
eiiiaiee, no?ieoaeueiua oe?iu e ae?oaea iinoaaueee oneoa iiaee
aani?aiyonoaaiii ia?aiauaoue ethaeae, eaieoae e oaoiieiaee ii anaio
ie?o. Aianoi yoiai iie noaeeeaathony n oeaeui eiiieaenii iaoeeiiaeueiuo
caeiiia, aieueoay /anoue eioi?uo nicaeaia, /oiau aa?aioe?iaaoue ?aaioo
ianoiui eiiiaieyi. Iai?eia?, iiaue oo?aoeeee caeii cai?auaao
iaaeaeoia?iaeiui aoaeeoi?neei oe?iai aaiceoue eaieoae a no?aio aeey
nicaeaiey oeeeaeia e o?aaoao io ieo a i?ioeanna ?ac?aaioee ia?eaoeiaiauo
i?ia?aii iieueciaaoueny oneoaaie ianoiuo ia?oia?ia, a ia i?anoeaeiuo
iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo oe?i. *oiau i?iaiaeeoue aoaeeoi?neea i?iaa?ee oeeeaea
o?ainiaoeeiiaeueiie ei?ii?aoeee, ?aniieiaeaiiiai a Aoyiin-Ae?ana,
aooaaeoa? aeieaeai i?ineooaoue eo?n eaeoeee ii i?ia?aiia n?aaeiae oeieu
ii aaia?aoee e enoi?ee A?aaioeiu. Naaiaeiy Eiaeey, aiciiaeii, eiaao
naiue aieueoie (e neiaeiue aeey aoiaeaeaiey) ?uiie a ie?a. Iueth-Aeaee
i?aiyonoaoao aeayoaeueiinoe iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo no?aoiauo eiiiaiee ii
i?iaeaaea iaaeaeaeeiinoe e no?aoiaaieth io ian/anoiuo neo/aaa
i?ioeaaoathuae aeaeiaie i?ineieea no?aiu, cai?auaao caieiaoueny
no?aoiaaieai aeecie ia?iiiiai n?aaeiaai eeanna.
Niaa?oaiii iiiyoii, /oi i?aaiecaoeeyi noa?u oneoa i?eoiaeeony
noaeeeaaoueny n ia?iiiuie o?oaeiinoyie i?e aoiaeaeaiee ia iiaua ?uiee.
Ia iineaaeiai, O?oaaaeneii, ?aoiaea Aaia?aeueiiai niaeaoaiey ii oa?eoai
e oi?aiaea, eioi?ue caaa?oee naith ?aaioo a 1993 aiaeo, ia/aee
i?aaei?eieiaoueny iaeioi?ua ia?u ii ?aoaieth aeaiiie i?iaeaiu. N?aaee
ieo ( ?anoe?aiea iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo oi?aiauo i?aaee a i?iecaiaenoaaiiie
noa?a e noa?a oneoa. Iiaua niaeaoaiey aeieaeiu iaeaa/eoue i?iieeiiaaiea
oneoa ia iaaeaeoia?iaeiue ?uiie e niyoue iaeioi?ua aa?uea?u. Oaeei
ia?acii, ianiio?y ia o?oaeiinoe a ia?eaoeiaa iaaeaeoia?iaeiuo oneoa,
nio?aiyaony oaiaeaioeey e ?anoe?aieth eiiiaiee, iniaaiii a aaieianeii
aeaea, oaeaeiiioieeaoeeyo e noa?a i?ioanneiiaeueiuo oneoa. Naaiaeiy
i?aaiecaoeee noa?u oneoa ia i?inoi neaaeotho ca naieie
eeeaioaie-i?iecaiaeeoaeyie, aianoi yoiai iie noaee eeaea?aie a
iaaeaeoia?iaeiie yeniainee.[1]
?acaeae 3 Yeiiiie/aneee yooaeo io aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee
ii niaa?oainoaiaaieth ia?eaoeiaa.
Aeey auiieiaiey ?an/aoa eiaai neaaeothuea aeaiiua:
1. Iauai ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ca i?ioeue aiae ninoaaeyao 50 960 000
?oa. (o.a. I?= 50 960 000 ?oa.)
2. O?oaeiaieinoue ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ca i?ioeue aiae ninoaaeyao
723539 /ae.-/. (o.a. On= 723 539 /ae.-/.)
3. Naaanoieiinoue anaai iauaia ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ca i?ioeue aiae
ninoaaeyao 43 610 000 ?oa. (o.a. N= 43 610 000 ?oa.)
4. O?oaeiaieinoue oneiaiie aaeeieoeu i?iaeoeoeee i?eiyou
?aaiie 390 /ae.-/. (o.a. Oo=390 /ae.-/.)
5. Aaeeiia?aiaiiua eaieoaeueiua aeiaeaiey ia aiaae?aiea ia?ii?eyoee ii
niaa?oainoaiaaieth ?aaia 20 000 ?oa. (o.a. Et = 20 000 ?oa.).
6. N?aaeiee n?ie aii?oecaoeee iniiaiuo oiiaeia, i?eia?aoaiiuo ca
aaeeiia?aiaiiua eaieoaeueiua aeiaeaiey (Oa= 8 eao).
7. Yeiiiiey OIO ca n/ao aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee ii niaa?oainoaiaaieth
?aaia 98 600 ?oa.
Ii io/aoiui aeaiiui iauai ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ca i?ioeue aiae
ninoaaeei ia noiio 50 960 000 ?oa.
O?oaeiaieinoue ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ninoaaeea 723539 /ae.-/.
Naaanoieiinoue anaai iauaia ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ca i?ioeue aiae
ninoaaeyao 43 610 000 ?oa.
Oiaaea i?ia?aiio auionea i?iaeoeoeee No iiaeii ii?aaeaeeoue:
aaea On – 723 539 – o?oaeiaieinoue ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ca i?ioeue
aiae a /ae./.;
Oo =390 /ae./. – o?oaeiaieinoue iaeiie i?iaeoeoeee.
Niioaaonoaaiii oeaia iaeiie oneiaiie i?iaeoeoeee Oeo ii?aaeaeyaony ec
au?aaeaiey:
aaea I?= 50 960 000 iauai ?aaeeciaaiiie i?iaeoeoeee ca i?ioeue aiae,
?oa.
Anee i?eiyoue, ii ?acoeueoaoai aiaeeca ca i?ioeua aiaea, /oi i?ia?aiia
aoaeao ?anoe i?eia?ii ia 5 % a aiae, a i?eiyoue ?an/aoiue ia?eiae ?aaai
5 aiaeai, iiaeii ii?aaeaeeoue yeiiiie/aneee yooaeo io aiaae?aiey
ia?ii?eyoee ii niaa?oainoaiaaieth:
aaea ?o – noieiinoue ioeaiee ?acoeueoaoia, iieo/aiiui a ?acoeueoaoa
aiaae?aiey ca ?an/aoiue ia?eiae; Co – noieiinoiay ioeaiea cao?ao ia
inouanoaeaiea aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee ca ?an/aoiue ia?eiae.
A naith i/a?aaeue:
aaea ti – ia/aeueiue aiae ?an/aoiiai ia?eiaea; te – eiia/iue aiae
?an/aoiiai ia?eiaea; t- aiae, cao?aou e ?acoeueoaou eioi?iai i?eaiaeeony
e ?an/aoiiio aiaeo; Oeo – oeaia ?aaeecaoeee oneoa; at – eiyooeoeeaio
i?eaaaeaiey iaeiia?aiaiiuo cao?ao e ?acoeueoaoia e ?an/aoiiio aiaeo; ee
– eiyooeoeeaio, o/eouaathuee eioeyoeeth ii aiaeai ?an/aoiiai ia?eiaea;
No – i?ia?aiia auionea oneoa a aiae, i?aaeuaeouaio ?an/aoo (No = 1 855
onea.)
Aaee/eio eiyooeoeeaioa i?eaaaeaiey ?aciia?aiaiiuo ?acoeueoaoia e cao?ao
at ii?aaeaeei oae:
aaea Ai – ii?iaoea i?eaea/aiey ?aciia?aiaiiuo cao?ao e ?acoeueoaoia,
/eneaii ?aaiu ii?iaoeao yooaeoeaiinoe eaieoaeueiuo aeiaeaiee (Ai=0,1);
t? – ?an/aoiue aiae.
Oiaaea aoaeei eiaoue:
(t2000=0,9091
(t2001=0,8264
(t2002=0,7513
(t2003=0,6830.
Aaee/eio eiyooeoeeaioa, o/eouaathuaai eioeyoeeth ke, ?ann/eouaatho ii
niaoeeaeueiui iaoiaeeeai eee aa?oo ii aeaiiui OeA ?O. Iauaeoeaiinoue
yoiai eiyooeoeeaioa caaeneo io o?iaiy ?aaoee?iaaiey oeai ia
eiiaa?oe?oaioth aaethoo ni noi?iiu ainoaea?noaa. Iaeaieaa i?inoui
iaoiaeii ii?aaeaeaiey ki iiaeao auoue au?aaeaiea:[2]
aaea Edtp-1 – n?aaeiaaiaeiaie eo?n aeieea?a ii ioiioaieth e
iaoeeiiaeueiie aaethoa (o.a. ?oaeth) a aiae, i?aaeoanoaothuaio ?an/aoo
aiaeo; t? – ?an/aoiue aiae; Kdtp – n?aaeiaaiaeiaie eo?n aeieea?a ii
ioiioaieth e iaoeeiiaeueiie aaethoa a ?an/aoiii aiaeo.
A ?O a oneiaeyo oae iacuaaaiiai “aaethoiiai ei?eaei?a” iiaeii
iaeeaeaoue, /oi ke aoaeao ?aaai (yoi i?eia?ii niioaaonoaoao aaee/eia
aeaiiiai eiyooeoeeaioa a no?aiao n ?uii/iie yeiiiieeie):
ke2000=0,90
ke2001=0,92
ke2002=0,94
ke2003=0,95
ke2004=0,96
Acya oaeea aunieea aaee/eiu yoiai eiyooeoeeaioa, Iu, nei?aa anaai,
auaeaai aeaeaaiia ca aeaenoaeoaeueiia. Ii niaoeeaeueiui ?an/aoai iia
eaaeeo a i?aaeaeao 0,65……0,8.[2]
Eniieuecoy auoai?eaaaeaiiua aeaiiua, ii?aaeaeyai ?o ca ?an/aoiue
ia?eiae:
Aeaeaa ii?aaeaeei aaee/eio Co ii au?aaeaieth:
aaea No – naaanoieiinoue iaeiie oneoae n o/aoii aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee.,
?oa., kt – aaeeiia?aiaiiua eaieoaeueiua cao?aou ia inouanoaeaiea
ia?ii?eyoee, ?oa.(yoa aaee/eia aoaeao ii?aaeaeaia ieaea); Et –
eeeaeaeaoeeiiiia naeueaei (inoaoi/iay noieiinoue) iniiaiuo oiiaeia,
auauaathuee a aiaeo t, iinea aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee.[2]
Eeeaeaeaoeeiiiia naeueaei:
aaea Oa – aii?oecaoeeiiiue n?ie, (Oa = 8 eao).
A naith i/a?aaeue a aaee/eio kt aeeth/aaony cao?aou ia i?eia?aoaiea
IYAI, i?ia?aii, ia iaeaaeeo eiiiuethoa?ia e iao/aiea ia?niiaea, o.a. Ci
kt= 20 000 ?oa.,
Oiaaea:
Naaanoieiinoue iaeiie oneiaiie oneoae No aei aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee
aoaeao ?aaia:
aaea IN – iauay naaanoieiinoue anao ?aaeeciaaiiuo oneoa ca i?ioeue aiae,
?oa.
Yeiiiiey OIO ca n/ao aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee ii niaa?oainoaiaaieth ?aaia
98 600 ?oa.
E?iia oiai, aoaeai eiaoue yeiiiieth io ia ia/eneaiey iaeiaia e nai?ia n
oiiaea iieaou o?oaea Ioio, eioi?ue nyeiiiieai, o. a. iauay yeiiiiey
aoaeao ?aaia (42 % io/eneaiee iaeiaia a n?aaeiai ec OIO):
Iinea aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee naaanoieiinoue ?aaia.
Oiaaea:
Aaea Yo – ?aaeueiue yeiiiie/aneee yooaeo io aiaae?aiey i?iaeoiuo
ia?ii?eyoee ca ?an/aoiue ia?eiae, ?oa.; Yo1 – yeiiiie/aneee yooaeo,
iieo/aiiue ca ?an/aoiue ia?eiae aac aiaae?aiey i?iaeoiuo ia?ii?eyoee,
?oa.; Yo2 – yeiiiie/aneee yooaeo, iieo/aiiue ca ?an/aoiue ia?eiae iinea
aiaae?aiey i?iaeoiuo ia?ii?eyoee, ?oa.[2]
Niioaaonoaaiii:
Oiaaea:
A naith i/a?aaeue:
Oiaaea aaee/eiu yeiiiie/aneiai yooaeoa aoaeoo ?aaiu:
Aeaeaa ii?aaeaeyai n?ie ieoiaaiinoe tie aeiiieieoaeueiuo eaieoaeueiuo
aeiaeaiee cao?a/aiiuo ia inouanoaeaiea ia?ii?eyoee.
Oaeei ia?acii, aiaae?aiea ia?ii?eyoee ii niaa?oainoaiaaieth ca ?an/aoiue
ia?eiae 5 eao aeaao ieiei 565 294 ?oa. yeiiiie/aneiai yooaeoa i?e n?iea
ieoiaaiinoe aeiiieieoaeueiuo eaieoaeueiuo aeiaeaiee ieiei 0,1 aiaea.
Iniiaiua auaiaeu e i?aaeeiaeaiey
A iineaaeiea aiaeu nouanoaaiii ?anoe?eeanue noa?a i?eiaiaiey ia?eaoeiaa,
nae/an ii oe?iei eniieuecoaony e i?aaei?eyoeyie noa?u oneoa.
Ii ia?a oiai eae a ?acaeouo no?aiao ?anoe?yaony aeiey ?uiea oneoa,
ia?eaoieiae aeieaeiu aieueoa ciaoue i ia?eaoeiaa oneoa. Oneoaa ( yoi
aeayoaeueiinoue eee aeaai, eioi?oth iaeia noi?iia iiaeao i?aaeeiaeeoue
ae?oaie. Iia ii nooe naiae iainycaaia e ia noaiiaeony ie/ueae
nianoaaiiinoueth. Oneoae iainycaaiu, i?ioeann eo i?iecaiaenoaa e
iio?aaeaiey iaeuecy ?acaeaeeoue, eo ea/anoai iaiinoiyiii e iie
iaaeieaiaa/iu. Eaaeaeay oa?aeoa?enoeea i?aaenoaaeyao niaie
ii?aaeaeaiioth i?iaeaio e o?aaoao ii?aaeaeaiiuo ia? aeey aa ?aoaiey.
Ia?eaoieiae aeieaeiu naeaeaoue oneoao aieaa inycaaiie; iiauneoue
i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoue o?oaea ethaeae, ieacuaathueo oneoae, eioi?ua
iaioaeaeeiu io naieo oiaa?ia; noaiaea?oece?iaaoue ea/anoai e naanoe e
ieieioio aai eciai/eainoue; o/eouaay iaaiciiaeiinoue o?aiaiey oneoae,
iie aeieaeiu neio?iiece?iaaoue ni?in e i?aaeeiaeaiea.
I?aaei?eyoey noa?u oneoa iau/ii anaaaea ionoaaaee io oe?i
i?iecaiaeeoaeae a i?eiyoee e eniieueciaaiee ia?eaoeiaiauo eiioeaioeee,
ii nae/an yoa neooaoeey iaiyaony. No?aoaaey ia?eaoeiaa oneoa aeieaeia
aeeth/aoue a naay ia oieueei aiaoiee, ii e aioo?aiiee ia?eaoeia aeey
iioeae?iaaiey neoaeaueo, a oaeaea aeaoonoi?iiiee ia?eaoeia. *oiau
aeiaeoueny oniaoa, ia?eaoieiae oneoa aeieaeiu nicaeaaaoue eiieo?aioioth
aeeooa?aioeeaoeeth, i?aaeeaaaoue aunieia ea/anoai oneoa e iaoiaeeoue
niiniau iiauoaiey i?iecaiaeeoaeueiinoe.
Nienie eniieueciaaiiuo eeoa?aoo?iuo enoi/ieeia.
1. Eioea? O. Iniiau ia?eaoeiaa: Ia?. n aia.( 2-a aa?ii. Ecae. ( I.;NIa.;
E.; Ecaeaoaeueneee aeii “Aeeueyin”, 2001. ( 944 n.
2.Een. ( Ioeaiea yooaeoeaiinoe aiaae?aiey ia?ii?eyoee ii
niaa?oainoaiaaieth iaiaaeaeiaioa e ia?eaoeiaa a eiaeaia?iie noa?a AIE.(
I.:Een, 2000.(29 n.
3. Aanianeee E.A. Ia?eaoeia: Eo?n eaeoeee. ( I.: EIO?A-I,2001.(219 n.
4. Aeaenoiei A.A. Ia?eaoeia: E?aoeee eo?n. O/aaiia iiniaea.( 2-a
ecae.(I.:Ecaeaoaeueneee aeii “Aeaoeia e Ei”,2001.(191 n.
5. Iieeiaiei I.I, Oaoa?neee A.E. Iniiau ia?eaoeiaa: O/aaii-iaoiaee/aneia
iiniaea. ( I.: Ecaeaoaeuenei-eieaioi?aiaue oeaio? “Ia?eaoeia”, 2002.(180
n.
6. Oeonia A.I. Iniiau ia?eaoeiaa( I.:”Ecaeaoaeuenoai I?EI?”, 2000.( 160
n.
No?.
I?aiaeaaeaiea inycaaiuo ninoaaeythueo
aacaeeiaieueiua iaieoee
iaoeiu
Nieue
iieooaa?eeaou
iithuea
n?aaenoaa
einiaoeea
Oeiainiaua oneoae
iieooaa?eeaou
iao/aiea
I?aiaeaaeaiea iainycaaiuo ninoaaeythueo
?aeeaiiua aaaionoaa
aaeaia?aaicee
eiinoeueoe?iaaiea
Eiiiaiey
Aiaoiee
ia?eaoeia
Aioo?aiiee ia?eaoeia
?aaioieee
Iio?aaeoaee
Aeaoonoi?iiiee
ia?eaoeia
Ia?aiao?u ea/anoaa
?aeeaia
Iio?aaiinoe
iieoiaoaey
I?aaeuaeouee iiuo
Iieaa
Noaiaiue aeinooiiinoe
?aiooaoeey eiiiaiee
Ciaiey
Iaaeaaeiinoue
Eiiiaoaioeey ia?niiaea
O?iaaiue eiiioieeaoeee
Iaoiaeeoaeueiinoue
?aaeoeey nio?oaeieeia
Inycaaiua oaeoi?u
Iaeeaeaaiay
oneoaa
Aini?eieiaaiia
Ea/anoai oneoae
Iieo/aiiay oneoaa
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