IINEIANEEE AINOAeA?NOAAIIUE EINOEOOO
IAAEAeOIA?IAeIUO IOIIOAIEE (OIEAA?NEOAO)
IEAe ?O
?AOA?AO
ii oaia
“NO?IAIEA AOIIA”
nooaeaioa 12-ie ae. a?oiiu 2-iai eo?na oae-oa IE Eiceianeiai A.A.
Iao/iue ?oeiaiaeeoaeue: i?io. Eaaiia-Oeoe A.E.
Iineaa – 1997
NIAeA?AEAIEA:
1. Ca?iaeaeaiea oai?ee no?iaiey aauanoaa 2
2. Aoiienoe/aneay oai?ey Aeaeueoiia 4
3. Eaoiaeiua eo/e e yeaeo?iiu
6
4. ssaea?iay iiaeaeue no?iaiey aoiiia
9
5. Ninoaa aoiiiuo yaea?
11
6. Ecioiiu
14
7. Yeaeo?iiiua iaiei/ee aoiiia. Oai?ey Ai?a 17
8. Eaaioiaay (aieiiaay) iaoaieea. Oa?aeoa?enoeea
iiaaaeaiey yeaeo?iiia a aoiiao 22
Nienie eniieueciaaiiie eeoa?aoo?u 25
1. Ca?iaeaeaiea oai?ee no?iaiey aauanoaa
Aoiienoe/aneay oai?ey – nia?aiaiiay oai?ey no?iaiey aauanoaa –
ca?iaeeeanue aua a Ae?aaiae A?aoeee. Ae?aaiaa?a/aneea iuneeoaee
eioa?aniaaeenue ia ia?aue acaeyae ioaea/aiiui aii?inii: iiaeii ee
aeaeeoue aauanoai aaneiia/ii ia ana iaiueoea e iaiueoea /anoe, eee aea
iii ninoieo ec iaeioi?uo iaaeaeeiuo /anoeoe, ia iiaeaeathueony
aeaeueiaeoaio aeaeaieth? Iniiaiia iai?aaeaiea iunee ae?aaiaa?a/aneeo
oeeinioia, neaaeiaaaoeo acaeyaeai Ieaoiia e A?enoioaey, iniiauaaeinue ia
i?aaenoaaeaiee i iai?a?uaiinoe iaoa?ee. Iaeiaei iaeioi?ua
ae?aaiaa?a/aneea oeeiniou, iniaaiii Aeaiie?eo, ia niaeaoaeenue n oaeie
oi/eie c?aiey e n/eoaee, /oi iaoa?ey ninoieo ec iaeue/aeoeo iaaeaeeiuo
/anoeoe, eioi?ua Aeaiie?eo iacuaae aoiiaie, /oi e cia/eo “iaaeaeeiua”.
Aoiienoe/aneea i?aaenoaaeaiey eaaeaee oaeaea a iniiaa anoanoaaiiie
oeeinioee ?eineiai iiyoa e oeeinioa Eoe?aoeey, aeeaoaai a ia?aii aaea
aei iaoae y?u. Ei auea iaienaia ciaiaieoay iiyia “I i?e?iaea aauae”, a
eioi?ie ii iiae?iaii ?acaeaae aoiienoe/aneea acaeyaeu ia i?e?iaeo
iaoa?ee.
Aeaaea anee auei au aeieacaii, /oi iaoa?ey eiaao aoiiiia no?iaiea,
aiciee au aii?in, /ai ioee/athony ae?oa io ae?oaa aoiiu ?acee/iuo
aauanoa. Eoe?aoeee n/eoae, /oi o aoiiia e aauanoa, eiathueo ai?ueeee
aeon, ia iiaa?oiinoe anoue cacoa?eiee, eioi?ua oea?aiatho ycue, oiaaea
eae aoiiu aauanoa n i?eyoiui aeonii aeieaeiu eiaoue aeaaeeoth
iiaa?oiinoue. Aoiienoe/aneea i?aaenoaaeaiey i i?e?iaea aauanoa ia
iaiiiai i?iaeaeioeenue aia?aae ca iineaaeothuea 18 aaeia, i?ioaaeoeo ni
a?aiai Eoe?aoeey. Iao/iay iuneue a Aa?iia iiiai aaeia iaoiaeeeanue iiae
aeeyieai oeeinioneeo eaeae Ieaoiia e A?enoioaey, eioi?ua ia ?acaeaeyee
aoiienoe/aneeo aicc?aiee ia i?e?iaeo iaoa?ee. E oioy ia aoiienoe/aneeo
i?aaenoaaeaieyo a?aiy io a?aiaie aniiieiaee, a i?aaeiea a?aiaia
noi?iiieee ethaie eiie?aoiie oai?ee no?iaiey iaoa?ee eneaee
iiaeoaa?aeaeaiey naieo acaeyaeia aeaaiui ia?acii a eiooeoeee. Iaeiaei e
ia i?ioyaeaiee yoiai aeieaiai ia?eiaea iaaeeaiii, n ia?a?uaaie, oea
yenia?eiaioaeueiay ?aaioa. *anoi ath aeaeaaee ioeai/iua acaeyaeu:
iai?eia?, aeoeieee n/eoaee, /oi i?inoua iaoaeeu, iaiiaeiaea naeioea,
iiaeii i?aa?aoeoue a ae?aaioeaiiua iaoaeeu. Oai ia iaiaa iaeaieeaaeenue
naaaeaiey i oii, eae oeie/aneea aauanoaa ?aaae?otho ae?oa n ae?oaii, e
?ac?aaaouaaeenue aieaa eiee/anoaaiiua iaoiaeu eco/aiey oeie/aneeo
?aaeoeee. Yoi iiaeaioiaeei ii/ao aeey iiauo, aieaa niaea?aeaoaeueiuo
oi?ioee?iaie a ?aieao aoiienoe/aneie oai?ee.
2. Aoiienoe/aneay oai?ey Aeaeueoiia
Aeaeii Aeaeueoii (1766 – 1844) aieueooth /anoue naiae aeecie i?aiiaeaaae
a oeiea e eieeaaeaea a Iai/anoa?a. Aiciiaeii iioiio, /oi nai Aeaeueoii
ia aue oeieeii, ii iiaeioae e aa i?iaeaiai n eiuo iiceoeee, /ai oeieee
aai a?aiaie. Aai aoiienoe/aneay oai?ey, iioaeeeiaaiiay a ia?eiae
1803-1807 aa., i?i/ii iniiauaaeanue ia yenia?eiaioaeueiuo iaaethaeaieyo.
Iia ieacaeanue noieue oniaoiie, /oi n yoiai a?aiaie caiyea
ainiiaenoaothuaa iieiaeaiea a iaoea e ii/oe ia iio?aaiaaea aeaeueiaeoaai
ia?aniio?a.
Iniiaiua iinooeaou oai?ee Aeaeueoiia caeeth/aeenue a neaaeothuai:
Eaaeaeue yeaiaio ninoieo ec /?acau/aeii iaeeeo /anoeoe, iacuaaaiuo
aoiiaie.
2. Ana aoiiu iaeiiai yeaiaioa iaeeiaeiau.
3. Aoiiu ?acee/iuo yeaiaioia iaeaaeatho ?aciuie naienoaaie, a oii
/enea eiatho ?aciua iannu.
4. Aoiiu iaeiiai yeaiaioa ia i?aa?auathony a aoiiu ae?oaeo yeaiaioia a
?acoeueoaoa oeie/aneeo ?aaeoeee; aoiiu ia nicaeathony e ia ?ac?ooathony
oeie/aneeo ?aaeoeeyo.
5. Niaaeeiaiey ia?acothony a ?acoeueoaoa eiiaeiaoeee aoiiia aeaoo eee
ianeieueeeo yeaiaioia.
6. A aeaiiii niaaeeiaiee ioiineoaeueiua eiee/anoaa aoiiia ?aciuo ni?oia
e ni?oa yoeo aoiiia anaaaea iinoiyiiu.
Oai?ey Aeaeueoiia iicaieyao iuneaiii ia?eniaaoue ea?oeio no?iaiey
iaoa?ee. Iu i?aaenoaaeyai naaa yeaiaio ninoiyuei ec iaeue/aeoeo /anoeoe,
iacuaaaiuo aoiiaie. Aoiiu yaeythony iniiaiuie no?oeoo?iuie aaeeieoeaie
iaoa?ee, yoi iaeue/aeoea /anoeoeu yeaiaioa, eioi?ua iiaoo niaaeeiyoueny
n ae?oaeie yeaiaioaie. Niaaeeiaiey ninoiyo ec aoiiia aeaoo eee
ianeieueeeo yeaiaioia, ia?acothueo ii?aaeaeaiiua ni/aoaiey ae?oa n
ae?oaii.
3. Eaoiaeiua eo/e e yeaeo?iiu
Aei eiioea XIX aaea a oeiee ainiiaenoaiaaei iaoaoece/aneia oaaaeaeaiea,
/oi aoii anoue iaeiaiueoay /anoeoea i?inoiai aauanoaa, iineaaeiee
i?aaeae aeaeeiinoe iaoa?ee. Aeaeueoii e aai nia?aiaiieee ?anniao?eaaee
aoii eae iaaeaeeiue iauaeo. N/eoaeinue, /oi i?e anao oeie/aneeo
i?aa?auaieyo ?ac?ooathony e aiiaue nicaeathony oieueei iieaeoeu,
aoiiu aea inoathony iaeciaiiuie e ia iiaoo ae?iaeoueny ia aieaa
iaeeea /anoe.
Ii ana yoe i?aaeiieiaeaiey a oi a?aiy aua ia iiaee auoue
iiaeoaa?aeaeaiu eaeeie-eeai yenia?eiaioaeueiuie aeaiiuie. Eeoue
a eiioea XIX aaea auee naeaeaiu ioe?uoey, iieacaaoea neiaeiinoue
no?iaiey aoiia e aiciiaeiinoue i?aa?auaiey i?e ecaanoiuo
oneiaeyo iaeieo aoiiia a ae?oaea. Ia iniiaa yoeo ioe?uoee ia/aei auno?i
?acaeaaoueny o/aiea i no?iaiee aoiia.
Ia?aua oeacaiey ia neiaeioth no?oeoo?o aoiiia auee iieo/aiu i?e
eco/aiee eaoiaeiuo (enoiaeyueo io io?eoeaoaeueii ca?yaeaiiiai
yeaeo?iaea, eee eaoiaea) eo/ae, aicieeathueo i?e yeaeo?e/aneii
?ac?yaea a neeueii ?ac?aaeaiiuo aacao. Aeey iaaethaeaiey yoeo eo/ae ec
noaeeyiiie o?oaee, a eioi?oth aiayiu aeaa iaoaeee/aneeo yeaeo?iaea,
auea/eaaaony ii aiciiaeiinoe aanue aicaeoo e caoai i?iioneaaony
neaicue iaa oie aunieiai iai?yaeaiey (ii?yaeea 1000 aieueo). I?e oaeeo
oneiaeyo io eaoiaea o?oaee ia?iaiaeeeoey?ii e aai iiaa?oiinoe
?ani?ino?aiythony “iaaeaeeiua” eaoiaeiua eo/e, aucuaathuea y?eia
caeaiia naa/aiea a oii ianoa, eoaea iie iiiaaeatho. Eaoiaeiua
eo/e iaeaaeatho niiniaiinoueth i?eaiaeeoue a aeaeaeaiea ia eo iooe
eaaei iiaeaeaeiua oaea e ioeeiiythony io naiaai ia?aiia/aeueiiai
iooe a iaaieoiii e yeaeo?e/aneii iiea (a iineaaeiai a noi?iio
iieiaeeoaeueii ca?yaeaiiie ieanoeiu). Aeaenoaea eaoiaeiuo eo/ae
iaia?oaeeaaaony oieueei aioo?e o?oaee, oae eae noaeei aeey ieo
iai?iieoeaaii. Eco/aiea naienoa eaoiaeiuo eo/ae i?eaaei e
caeeth/aieth, /oi iie i?aaenoaaeytho niaie iioie iaeue/aeoeo /anoeoe,
ianoueo io?eoeaoaeueiue yeaeo?e/aneee ca?yae e eaoyueo ni
nei?inoueth, aeinoeaathuae iieiaeiu nei?inoe naaoa.
Iniaaiii caia/aoaeueii, /oi ianna /anoeoe e aaee/eia eo ca?yaea ia
caaeneo ie io i?e?iaeu aaca, inoathuaainy a o?oaea, ie io aauanoaa, ec
eioi?iai naeaeaiu yeaeo?iaeu, ie io i?i/eo oneiaee iiuoa. E?iia
oiai, eaoiaeiua /anoeoeu ecaanoiu oieueei a ca?yaeaiiii ninoiyiee e ia
iiaoo auoue eeoaiu naieo ca?yaeia, ia iiaoo auoue
i?aa?auaiu a yeaeo?iiaeo?aeueiua /anoeoeu: yeaeo?e/aneee ca?yae
ninoaaeyao naioth nouiinoue eo i?e?iaeu. Yoe /anoeoeu iieo/eee
iacaaiea yeaeo?iiia.
Ii nia?aiaiiui aicc?aieyi, ca?yae yeaeo?iia anoue
iaeiaiueoee yeaeo?e/aneee ca?yae, iaeiaiueoaa eie-ai yeaeo?e/anoaa,
eaeia oieueei iiaeao nouanoaiaaoue. A eaoiaeiuo o?oaeao yeaeo?iiu
ioaeaeythony io eaoiaea iiae aeeyieai yeaeo?e/aneiai ca?yaea,
iaeiaei iie iiaoo aicieeaoue e aia anyeie nayce n yeaeo?e/aneei
ca?yaeii. Oae, iai?eia?, ana iaoaeeu enioneatho yeaeo?iiu i?e
iaeaeeaaiee; a ieaiaie ai?aeee oaeaea i?enoonoaotho yeaeo?iiu;
iiiaea aauanoaa aua?anuaatho yeaeo?iiu i?e inaauaiee
oeueo?aoeieaoiauie, ?aioaaiianeeie eee eo/aie naaoa
(oioiyooaeo). Auaeaeaiea yeaeo?iiia naiuie ?aciiia?aciuie aauanoaaie
oeacuaaao ia oi, /oi yoe /anoeoeu aoiaeyo a ninoaa anao
aoiiia, neaaeiaaoaeueii, aoiiu yaeythony neiaeiuie ia?aciaaieyie,
iino?iaiiuie ec aieaa iaeeeo no?oeoo?iuo aaeeieoe.
A 1897 aiaeo aiaeeeneiio oeceeo Aeae. Aeae. Oiiiniio (1856-1940)
oaeaeinue ecia?eoue ioiioaiea yeaeo?e/aneiai ca?yaea yeaeo?iia e aai
ianna, eioi?ia ieacaeinue ?aaiui 1,76*10 Ee/a.
A 1909 aiaeo ?iaa?o Ieeeeeai ec *eeaaneiai oieaa?neoaoa ii?aaeaeee
ca?yae yeaeo?iia: 1,60*10 Ee. Iiaenoaaea yoi cia/aiea a iaeaeaiiia
Oiiniiii ioiioaiea ca?yaea yeaeo?iia e aai ianna, iiaeii auei au/eneeoue
ianno yeaeo?iia: 1,60*10 Ee/1,76*10 Ee/a = 9,11*10 a.
4. ssaea?iay iiaeaeue no?iaiey aoiia
Eco/aiea no?iaiey aoiia i?aeoe/anee ia/aeinue a 1897-1898 aa.,
iinea oiai eae auea ieii/aoaeueii onoaiiaeaia i?e?iaea eaoiaeiuo
eo/ae eae iioiea yeaeo?iiia e auee ii?aaeaeaiu aaee/eia ca?yaea e
ianna yeaeo?iia. Oaeo auaeaeaiey yeaeo?iiia naiuie
?aciiia?aciuie aauanoaaie i?eaiaeee e auaiaeo, /oi yeaeo?iiu
aoiaeyo a ninoaa anao aoiiia. Ii aoii a oeaeii yeaeo?e/anee
iaeo?aeai, neaaeiaaoaeueii, ii aeieaeai niaea?aeaoue a naaa aua
ae?oaoth ninoaaioth /anoue, ca?yaeaiioth iieiaeeoaeueii, i?e/ai aa
ca?yae aeieaeai o?aaiiaaoeaaoue noiio io?eoeaoaeueiuo
ca?yaeia yeaeo?iiia.
Yoa iieiaeeoaeueii ca?yaeaiiay /anoue aoiia auea ioe?uoa a 1911 a.
Y?ianoii ?aca?oi?aeii (1871-1937). ?aca?oi?ae i?aaeeiaeee
neaaeothuoth noaio no?iaiey aoiia. A oeaio?a aoiia iaoiaeeony
iieiaeeoaeueii ca?yaeaiiia yae?i, aie?oa eioi?iai ii ?aciui i?aeoai
a?auathony yeaeo?iiu. Aicieeathuay i?e eo a?auaiee oeaio?iaaaeiay
neea o?aaiiaaoeaaaony i?eoyaeaieai iaaeaeo yae?ii e yeaeo?iiaie,
aneaaenoaea /aai iie inoathony ia ii?aaeaeaiiuo ?annoiyieyo io
yae?a. Noiia?iue io?eoeaoaeueiue ca?yae yeaeo?iiia /eneaiii ?aaai
iieiaeeoaeueiiio ca?yaeo yae?a, oae /oi aoii a oeaeii yeaeo?iiaeo?aeai.
Oae eae ianna yeaeo?iia ie/oiaeia iaea, oi ii/oe any ianna
aoiia nin?aaeioi/aia a aai yae?a. Iaiai?io, ?acia? yaea? /?acau/aeii
iae aeaaea ii n?aaiaieth n ?acia?ii naieo aoiiia: aeeaiao? aoiia –
aaee/eia ii?yaeea 10 ni, a aeeaiao? yae?a – ii?yaeea 10 – 10 ni.
Ionthaea ynii, /oi ia aeieth yae?a e yeaeo?iiia, /enei eioi?uo, eae
oaeaeei aeaeueoa, n?aaieoaeueii iaaaeeei, i?eoiaeeony eeoue
ie/oiaeiay /anoue anaai i?ino?ainoaa, caiyoiai aoiiiie nenoaiie.
5. Ninoaa aoiiiuo yaea?
Oaeei ia?acii, ioe?uoey ?aca?oi?aea iieiaeeee ia/aei yaea?iie
oai?ee aoiia. Ni a?aiai ?aca?oi?aea oeceee ociaee aua i/aiue iiiaea
iiae?iaiinoe i no?iaiee aoiiiiai yae?a.
Naiui eaaeei aoiiii yaeyaony aoii aiaei?iaea. Iineieueeo ii/oe any
ianna aoiia nin?aaeioi/aia a yae?a, anoanoaaiii auei au i?aaeiieiaeeoue,
/oi yae?i aoiia aiaei?iaea i?aaenoaaeyao niaie yeaiaioa?ioth /anoeoeo
iieiaeeoaeueiiai yeaeo?e/anoaa, eioi?ay auea iacaaia i?ioiiii io
a?a/aneiai neiaa “i?ioin”, /oi icia/aao “ia?aue”. Oaeei ia?acii, i?ioii
iaeaaeaao iannie, i?aeoe/anee ?aaiie ianna aoiia aiaei?iaea (oi/ii
1,00728 oaea?iaeiuo aaeeieoe) e yeaeo?e/aneei ca?yaeii, ?aaiui +1 (anee
ca aaeeieoeo io?eoeaoaeueiiai yeaeo?e/anoaa i?eiyoue ca?yae yeaeo?iia,
?aaiue -1,602*10 Ee). Aoiiu ae?oaeo, aieaa oyaeaeuo yeaiaioia
niaea?aeao yae?a, iaeaaeathuea aieueoei ca?yaeii e, i/aaeaeii, aieueoae
iannie.
Ecia?aiey ca?yaea yaea? aoiiia iieacaee, /oi ca?yae yae?a aoiia a
oeacaiiuo oneiaiuo aaeeieoeao /eneaiii ?aaai aoiiiiio, eee ii?yaeeiaiio,
iiia?o yeaiaioa. Iaeiaei iaaiciiaeii auei aeiionoeoue, oae eae
iineaaeiea, aoaeo/e iaeiieiaiii ca?yaeaiiuie, iaecaaaeii iooaeeeaaeenue
au ae?oa io ae?oaa e, neaaeiaaoaeueii, oaeea yae?a ieacaeenue au
iaonoie/eauie. E oiio aea ianna aoiiiuo yaea? ieacaeanue aieueoa
noiia?iie iannu i?ioiiia, iaoneaaeeaathueo ca?yae yaea? aoiiia
niioaaonoaothueo yeaiaioia, a aeaa ?aca e aieaa.
Oiaaea auei naeaeaii i?aaeiieiaeaiea, /oi yae?a aoiiia niaea?aeao
i?ioiiu a /enea, i?aauoathuai aoiiiue iiia? yeaiaioa, a nicaeathueeny
oaeei ia?acii ecauoi/iue iieiaeeoaeueiue ca?yae yae?a eiiiaine?oaony
aoiaeyueie a ninoaa yae?a yeaeo?iiaie. Yoe yeaeo?iiu, i/aaeaeii,
aeieaeiu oaea?aeeaaoue a yae?a acaeiii iooaeeeaathueany i?ioiiu. Iaeiaei
yoi i?aaeiieiaeaiea i?eoeinue ioaa?aiooue, oae eae iaaiciiaeii auei
aeiionoeoue niaianoiia nouanoaiaaiea a eiiiaeoiii yae?a oyaeaeuo
(i?ioiiia) e eaaeeo (yeaeo?iiu) /anoeoe.
A 1932 a. Aeae. *aaeaee ioe?ue yeaiaioa?ioth /anoeoeo, ia iaeaaeathuoth
yeaeo?e/aneei ca?yaeii, a nayce n /ai iia auea iacaaia iaeo?iiii (io
eaoeineiai neiaa neuter, /oi icia/aao “ie oio, ie ae?oaie”). Iaeo?ii
iaeaaeaao iannie, iaiiiai i?aauoathuae ianno i?ioiia (oi/ii 1,008665
oaea?iaeiuo aaeeieoe). Aneaae ca yoei ioe?uoeai Ae.Ae.Eaaiaiei,
A.I.Aaiii e A.Aaecaiaa?a, iacaaeneii ae?oa io ae?oaa, i?aaeeiaeeee
oai?eth ninoaaa aoiiiuo yaea?, noaaooth iauai?eiyoie.
Niaeanii yoie oai?ee, yae?a aoiiia anao yeaiaioia (ca eneeth/aieai
aiaei?iaea) ninoiyo ec i?ioiiia e iaeo?iiia. *enei i?ioiiia a yae?a
ii?aaeaeyao cia/aiea aai iieiaeeoaeueiiai ca?yaea, a noiia?iia /enei
i?ioiiia e iaeo?iiia – cia/aiea aai iannu. ssaea?iua /anoeoeu – i?ioiiu
e iaeo?iiu – iauaaeeiythony iiae iauei iacaaieai ioeeiiu io eaoeineiai
neiaa nucleus, /oi icia/aao “yae?i”. Oaeei ia?acii, /enei i?ioiiia a
yae?a niioaaonoaoao aoiiiiio iiia?o yeaiaioa, a iauaa /enei ioeeiiia,
iineieueeo ianna aoiia a iniiaiii nin?aaeioi/aia a yae?a, – aai
ianniaiio /eneo, o.a. ie?oaeaiiie aei oeaeiai /enea aai aoiiiie ianna A.
Oiaaea /enei iaeo?iiia a yae?a N iiaeao auoue iaeaeaii ii ?aciinoe
iaaeaeo ianniaui /eneii e aoiiiui iiia?ii:
N = A – Z.
Oaeei ia?acii, i?ioiiii-iaeo?iiiay oai?ey iicaieeea ?ac?aoeoue aicieeoea
?aiaa i?ioeai?a/ey a i?aaenoaaeaieyo i ninoaaa aoiiiuo yaea? e i aai
nayce n ii?yaeeiaui iiia?ii e aoiiiie iannie.
6. Ecioiiu
I?ioiiii-iaeo?iiiay oai?ey iicaieeea ?ac?aoeoue e aua iaeii
i?ioeai?a/ea, aicieeoaa i?e oi?ie?iaaiee oai?ee aoiia. Anee i?eciaoue,
/oi yae?a aoiiia yeaiaioia ninoiyo ec ii?aaeaeaiiiai /enea ioeeiiia, oi
aoiiiua iannu anao yeaiaioia aeieaeiu au?aaeaoueny oeaeuie /eneaie. Aeey
iiiaeo yeaiaioia yoi aeaenoaeoaeueii oae, a iacia/eoaeueiua ioeeiiaiey
io oeaeuo /enae iiaeii iauynieoue iaaeinoaoi/iie oi/iinoueth ecia?aiey.
Iaeiaei o iaeioi?uo yeaiaioia cia/aiey aoiiiuo iann oae neeueii
ioeeiiyeenue io oeaeuo /enae, /oi yoi oaea iaeuecy iauynieoue
iaoi/iinoueth ecia?aiey e ae?oaeie neo/aeiuie i?e/eiaie. Iai?eia?,
aoiiiay ianna oei?a ?aaia 35,45. Onoaiiaeaii, /oi i?eaeeceoaeueii o?e
/aoaa?oe nouanoaothueo a i?e?iaea aoiiia oei?a eiatho ianno 35, a iaeia
/aoaa?oue – 37. Oaeei ia?acii, nouanoaothuea a i?e?iaea yeaiaiou
ninoiyo ec niane aoiiia, eiathueo ?aciua iannu, ii, i/aaeaeii,
iaeeiaeiaua oeie/aneea naienoaa, o. a. nouanoaotho ?aciiaeaeiinoe aoiiia
iaeiiai yeaiaioa n ?aciuie e i?eoii oeaei/eneaiiuie iannaie. O. Anoiio
oaeaeinue ?acaeaeeoue oaeea niane ia ninoaaiua /anoe, eioi?ua auee
iacaaiu ecioiiaie io a?a/aneeo neia “ecin” e “oiiin”, /oi icia/aao
“iaeeiaeiaue” e “ianoi” (caeanue eiaaony a aeaeo, /oi ?aciua ecioiiu
iaeiiai yeaiaioa caieiatho iaeii ianoi a ia?eiaee/aneie nenoaia). N
oi/ee c?aiey i?ioiiii-iaeo?iiiie oai?ee ecioiiaie iacuaathony
?aciiaeaeiinoe yeaiaioia, yae?a aoiiia eioi?uo niaea?aeao ?acee/iia
/enei iaeo?iiia, ii iaeeiaeiaia /enei i?ioiiia. Oeie/aneay i?e?iaea
yeaiaioa iaoneiaeaia /eneii i?ioiiia a aoiiiii yae?a, eioi?iio ?aaii e
/enei yeaeo?iiia a iaiei/ea aoiia. Eciaiaiea aea /enea iaeo?iiia (i?e
iaeciaiiii /enea i?ioiiia) ia neacuaaaony ia oeie/aneeo naienoaao aoiia.
Ana yoi aeaao aiciiaeiinoue noi?ioee?iaaoue iiiyoea oeie/aneiai yeaiaioa
eae aeaea aoiiia, oa?aeoa?ecothueony ii?aaeaeaiiui ca?yaeii yae?a.
N?aaee ecioiiia ?acee/iuo yeaiaioia auee iaeaeaiu oaeea, eioi?ua
niaea?aeao a yae?a i?e ?aciii /enea i?ioiiia iaeeiaeiaia iauaa /enei
ioeeiiia, oi anoue aoiiu eioi?uo iaeaaeatho iaeeiaeiaie iannie. Oaeea
ecioiiu auee iacaaiu eciaa?aie io a?a/aneiai neiaa “aa?in”, /oi icia/aao
“aan”. ?acee/iay oeie/aneay i?e?iaea eciaa?ia oaaaeeoaeueii
iiaeoaa?aeaeaao oi, /oi i?e?iaea yeaiaioa iaoneaaeeaaaony ia iannie aai
aoiia.
Aeey ?acee/iuo ecioiiia i?eiaiythony iacaaiey e neiaieu naieo yeaiaioia
n oeacaieai ianniaiai /enea, eioi?ia neaaeoao ca iacaaieai yeaiaioa eee
iaicia/aaony a aeaea eiaeaena aaa?oo neaaa io neiaiea, iai?eia? : oei? –
35 eee Cl.
?acee/iua ecioiiu ioee/athony ae?oa io ae?oaa onoie/eainoueth. 26
yeaiaioia eiatho eeoue ii iaeiiio onoie/eaiio ecioiio – oaeea yeaiaiou
iacuaathony iiiiecioiiiuie (iie oa?aeoa?ecothony i?aeiouanoaaiii
ia/aoiuie aoiiiuie iiia?aie), e aoiiiua iannu eo i?eaeeceoaeueii
oeaei/eneaiiu. O 55 yeaiaioia eiaaony ii ianeieueeo onoie/eauo
ecioiiia – iie iacuaathony iieeecioiiiuie (aieueoia /enei ecioiiia
oa?aeoa?ii i?aeiouanoaaiii aeey yeaiaioia n /aoiuie iiia?aie). O
inoaeueiuo yeaiaioia ecaanoiu oieueei iaonoie/eaua, ?aaeeiaeoeaiua
ecioiiu. Yoi ana oyaeaeua yeaiaiou, ia/eiay n yeaiaioa ?84 (iieiiee), a
ec ioiineoaeueii eaaeeo – ?43 (oaoiaoeee) e ?61 (i?iiaoee). Iaeiaei
?aaeeiaeoeaiua ecioiiu iaeioi?uo yeaiaioia ioiineoaeueii onoie/eau
(oa?aeoa?ecothony aieueoei ia?eiaeii iieo?aniaaea), e iiyoiio yoe
yeaiaiou, iai?eia? oi?ee, o?ai, ano?a/athony a i?e?iaea. A aieueoeinoaa
aea ?aaeeiaeoeaiua ecioiiu iieo/atho eneonnoaaiii, a oii /enea e
iiiai/eneaiiua ?aaeeiaeoeaiua ecioiiu onoie/eauo yeaiaioia.
7. Yeaeo?iiiua iaiei/ee aoiiia. Oai?ey Ai?a.
Ii oai?ee ?aca?oi?aea, eaaeaeue yeaeo?ii a?auaaony aie?oa yae?a,
i?e/ai neea i?eoyaeaiey yae?a o?aaiiaaoeaaaony oeaio?iaaaeiie neeie,
aicieeathuae i?e a?auaiee yeaeo?iia. A?auaiea yeaeo?iia niaa?oaiii
aiaeiae/ii aai auno?ui eieaaaieyi e aeieaeii aucaaoue enioneaiea
yeaeo?iiaaieoiuo aiei. Iiyoiio iiaeii i?aaeiieiaeeoue, /oi
a?auathueeny yeaeo?ii eceo/aao naao ii?aaeaeaiiie aeeeiu aieiu,
caaenyuee io /anoiou ia?auaiey yeaeo?iia ii i?aeoa. Ii, eceo/ay
naao, yeaeo?ii oa?yao /anoue naiae yia?aee, aneaaenoaea /aai ia?ooaaony
?aaiiaanea iaaeaeo iei e yae?ii; aeey ainnoaiiaeaiey ?aaiiaaney
yeaeo?ii aeieaeai iinoaiaiii ia?aaeaeaaoueny aeeaea e yae?o, i?e/ai
oae aea iinoaiaiii aoaeao eciaiyoueny /anoioa ia?auaiey yeaeo?iia
e oa?aeoa? enioneaaiiai ei naaoa. A eiioea eiioeia, en/a?iaa anth
yia?aeth, yeaeo?ii aeieaeai “oianoue” ia yae?i, e eceo/aiea naaoa
i?ae?aoeony. Anee au ia naiii aeaea i?ienoiaeeei oaeia iai?a?uaiia
eciaiaiea aeaeaeaiey yeaeo?iia, aai “iaaeaiea” ia yae?i icia/aei au
?ac?ooaiea aoiia e i?ae?auaiey aai nouanoaiaaiey.
Oaeei ia?acii, iaaeyaeiay e i?inoay yaea?iay iiaeaeue aoiia,
i?aaeeiaeaiiay ?aca?oi?aeii, yaii i?ioeai?a/eea eeanne/aneie
yeaeo?iaeeiaieea. Nenoaia a?auathueony aie?oa yae?a yeaeo?iiia ia iiaeao
auoue onoie/eaie, oae eae yeaeo?ii i?e oaeii a?auaiee aeieaeai
iai?a?uaii eceo/aoue yia?aeth, /oi, a naith i/a?aaeue, aeieaeii i?eaanoe
e aai iaaeaieth ia yae?i e e ?ac?ooaieth aoiia. Iaaeaeo oai ia naiii
aeaea aoiiu yaeythony onoie/eauie nenoaiaie.
Yoe nouanoaaiiua i?ioeai?a/ey /anoe/ii ?ac?aoee auaeathueeny aeaoneee
oecee Ieeuen Ai? (1885 – 1962), ?ac?aaioaaoee a 1913 aiaeo oai?eth
aiaei?iaeiiai aoiia, a iniiao eioi?ie ii iieiaeee iniaua iinooeaou,
naycaa eo, n iaeiie noi?iiu, n caeiiaie eeanne/aneie iaoaieee e, n
ae?oaie noi?iiu, n eaaioiaie oai?eae eceo/aiey yia?aee iaiaoeeiai oeceea
Iaena Ieaiea (1858 – 1947).
Nouiinoue oai?ee eaaioia naiaeeony e oiio, /oi yia?aey enioneaaony e
iiaeiuaaony ia iai?a?uaii, eae i?eieiaeinue ?aiueoa, a ioaeaeueiuie
iaeuie, ii aiieia ii?aaeaeaiiuie ii?oeeyie – eaaioaie yia?aee. Caian
yia?aee eceo/athuaai oaea eciaiyaony nea/eaie, eaaio ca eaaioii;
ae?iaiia /enei eaaioia oaei ia iiaeao ie enioneaoue, ie iiaeiuaoue.
Aaee/eia eaaioa yia?aee caaeneo io /anoiou eceo/aiey: /ai aieueoa
/anoioa eceo/aiey, oai aieueoa aaee/eia eaaioa. Iaicia/ay eaaio
yia?aee /a?ac A, caieoai o?aaiaiea Ieaiea:
A = h* ,
aaea h – iinoiyiiay aaee/eia, oae iacuaaaiay eiinoaioa Ieaiea, ?aaiay
6,626*10 Aeae*n.
Eaaiou eo/enoie yia?aee iacuaathony oaeaea oioiiaie. I?eiaiea
eaaioiaua i?aaenoaaeaiey e a?auaieth yeaeo?iiia aie?oa yae?a, Ai?
iieiaeee a iniiao naiae oai?ee i/aiue niaeua i?aaeiieiaeaiey, eee
iinooeaou. Oioy yoe iinooeaou e i?ioeai?a/ao caeiiai eeanne/aneie
yeaeo?iaeeiaieee, ii iie iaoiaeyo naia ii?aaaeaiea a oao
ii?aceoaeueiuo ?acoeueoaoao, e eioi?ui i?eaiaeyo, e a oii iieiaeoai
niaeanee, eioi?ia iaia?oaeeaaaony iaaeaeo oai?aoe/aneei ?acoeueoaoaie
e ia?iiiui /eneii yenia?eiaioaeueiuo oaeoia. Iinooeaou Ai?a
caeeth/athony a neaaeothuai:
Yeaeo?ii iiaeao aeaeaaoueny aie?oa ia ii ethaui i?aeoai, a oieueei ii
oaeei, eioi?ua oaeiaeaoai?ytho ii?aaeaeaiiuie oneiaeyi, auoaeathuei
ec oai?ee eaaioia. Yoe i?aeou iieo/eee iacaaiea onoie/eauo,
noaoeeiia?iuo eee eaaioiauo i?aeo. Eiaaea yeaeo?ii aeaeaeaony ii
iaeiie ec aiciiaeiuo aeey iaai onoie/eauo i?aeo, oi ii ia eceo/aao
yeaeo?iiaaieoiie yia?aee. Ia?aoiae yeaeo?iia n oaeaeaiiie i?aeou
ia aieaa aeeceoth nii?iaiaeaeaaony iioa?ae yia?aee. Iioa?yiiay aoiiii
i?e eaaeaeii ia?aoiaea yia?aey i?aa?auaaony a iaeei eaaio eo/enoie
yia?aee. *anoioa eceo/aaiiai i?e yoii naaoa ii?aaeaeyaony ?aaeeonaie
oao aeaoo i?aeo, iaaeaeo eioi?uie niaa?oaaony ia?aoiae yeaeo?iia.
Iaicia/ea caian yia?aee aoiia i?e iieiaeaiee yeaeo?iia ia aieaa
oaeaeaiiie io yae?a i?aeoa /a?ac A( , a ia aieaa aeeceie /a?ac A( e
?acaeaeea iioa?yiioth aoiiii yia?aeth A( – A( ia iinoiyiioth Ieaiea,
iieo/ei eneiioth /anoioo:
= (A( – A( ) / h.
*ai aieueoa ?annoiyiea io i?aeou, ia eioi?ie iaoiaeeony
yeaeo?ii, aei oie, ia eioi?oth ii ia?aoiaeeo, oai aieueoa /anoioa
eceo/aiey. I?inoaeoei ec aoiiia yaeyaony aoii aiaei?iaea,
aie?oa yae?a eioi?iai a?auaaony oieueei iaeei yeaeo?ii. Enoiaey ec
i?eaaaeaiiuo iinooeaoia, Ai? ?ann/eoae ?aaeeonu aiciiaeiuo i?aeo aeey
yoiai yeaeo?iia e iaoae, /oi iie ioiinyony, eae eaaae?aou
iaoo?aeueiuo /enae: 1 : 2 : 3 : …: n . Aaee/eia n iieo/eea iacaaiea
aeaaiiai eaaioiaiai /enea.
A aeaeueiaeoai oai?ey Ai?a auea ?ani?ino?aiaia e ia aoiiioth no?oeoo?o
ae?oaeo yeaiaioia, oioy yoi auei naycaii n iaeioi?uie o?oaeiinoyie ec-ca
aa iiaeciu. Iia iicaieeea ?ac?aoeoue i/aiue aaaeiue aii?in i
?aniieiaeaiee yeaeo?iiia a aoiiao ?acee/iuo yeaiaioia e onoaiiaeoue
caaeneiinoue naienoa yeaiaioia io no?iaiey yeaeo?iiiuo iaiei/ae eo
aoiiia. A ianoiyuaa a?aiy ?ac?aaioaiu noaiu no?iaiey aoiiia anao
oeie/aneeo yeaiaioia. Iaeiaei iaaei eiaoue a aeaeo, /oi ana yoe noaiu
– yoi eeoue aieaa eee iaiaa aeinoiaa?iay aeiioaca, iicaieythuay
iauynieoue iiiaea oece/aneea e oeie/aneea naienoaa yeaiaioia.
Eae ?aiueoa oaea auei neacaii, /enei yeaeo?iiia, a?auathueony aie?oa
yae?a aoiia, niioaaonoaoao ii?yaeeiaiio iiia?o yeaiaioa a
ia?eiaee/aneie nenoaia. Yeaeo?iiu ?aniieiaeaiu ii neiyi, o.a. eaaeaeiio
neith i?eiaaeeaaeeo ii?aaeaeaiiia caiieiythuaa eee eae au ianuuathuaa
aai /enei yeaeo?iiia. Yeaeo?iiu iaeiiai e oiai aea neiy
oa?aeoa?ecothony ii/oe iaeeiaeiaui caianii yia?aee, o.a. iaoiaeyony
i?eia?ii ia iaeeiaeiaii yia?aaoe/aneii o?iaia. Any iaiei/ea aoiia
?aniaaeaaony ia ianeieueei yia?aaoe/aneeo o?iaiae. Yeaeo?iiu eaaeaeiai
neaaeothuaai neiy iaoiaeyony ia aieaa aunieii yia?aaoe/aneii o?iaia,
/ai yeaeo?iiu i?aaeuaeouaai neiy. Iaeaieueoaa /enei yeaeo?iiia N,
iiaoueo iaoiaeeoueny ia aeaiiii yia?aaoe/aneii o?iaia, ?aaii
oaeaiaiiiio eaaae?aoo iiia?a neiy:
N=2n
aaea n – iiia? neiy. Oaeei ia?acii ia 1-2, ia 2-8, ia 3-18 e o.ae.
E?iia oiai, onoaiiaeaii, /oi /enei yeaeo?iiia a ia?oaeiii neia aeey anao
yeaiaioia, e?iia iaeeaaeey, ia i?aauoaao ainueie, a a i?aaeiineaaeiai
– ainaiiaaeoeaoe.
Yeaeo?iiu ia?oaeiiai neiy, eae iaeaieaa oaeaeaiiua io yae?a e,
neaaeiaaoaeueii, iaeiaiaa i?i/ii naycaiiua n yae?ii, iiaoo
io?uaaoueny io aoiia e i?eniaaeeiyoueny e ae?oaei aoiiai, aoiaey
a ninoaa ia?oaeiiai neiy iineaaeieo. Aoiiu, eeoeaoeany iaeiiai eee
ianeieueeeo yeaeo?iiia, noaiiayony iieiaeeoaeueii ca?yaeaiiuie,
oae eae ca?yae yae?a aoiia i?aauoaao noiio ca?yaeia inoaaoeony
yeaeo?iiia. Iaiai?io, aoiiu, i?eniaaeeieaoea yeaeo?iiu noaiiayony
io?eoeaoaeueii ca?yaeaiiuie. Ia?acothueany oaeei iooai ca?yaeaiiua
/anoeoeu, ea/anoaaiii ioee/iua io niioaaonoaothueo aoiiia,
iacuaathony eiiaie. Iiiaea eiiu a naith i/a?aaeue iiaoo oa?youe eee
i?eniaaeeiyoue yeaeo?iiu, i?aa?auaynue i?e yoii eee a
yeaeo?iiaeo?aeueiua aoiiu, eee a iiaua eiiu n ae?oaei ca?yaeii.
8. Eaaioiaay (aieiiaay) iaoaieea. Oa?aeoa?enoeea iiaaaeaiey yeaeo?iiia a
aoiiao.
Oai?ey Ai?a ieacaea ia?iiiua oneoae oeceea e oeiee. Iaeiaei
inoaaaeinue aua iiiai yaeaiee a yoie iaeanoe, iauynieoue eioi?ua
oai?ey Ai?a ia iiaea. Aeaeaeaiea yeaeo?iiia a aoiiao ?eniaaeinue Ai?o
aei ecaanoiie noaiaie eae i?inoia iaoaie/aneia ia?aiauaiea,
iaaeaeo oai eae iii yaeyaony aanueia neiaeiui e naiaia?aciui.
Naiaia?acea aeaeaeaiey yeaeo?iiia auei ?ane?uoi iiaie oai?eae –
eaaioiaie, eee aieiiaie, iaoaieeie. Eaaioiaay iaoaieea
iieacuaaao, /oi caeiiu aeaeaeaiey yeaeo?iiia eiatho iiiai iauaai n
caeiiaie ?ani?ino?aiaiey aiei. Aeey yeaeo?iia n iannie m e nei?inoueth v
iiaeii caienaoue:
= h / (m*v),
aaea – aeeeia aieiu, h- iinoiyiiay Ieaiea.
Aoiiu ?acee/iuo yeaiaioia oa?aeoa?ecothony ii?aaeaeaiiui cia/aieai
ca?yaea yae?a e ?aaiui aio /eneii yeaeo?iiia, eioi?ua ?ani?aaeaeythony
ii yia?aaoe/aneei o?iaiyi. Iiaaaeaiea yeaeo?iiia a aoiia
oa?aeoa?ecoaony /aou?ueiy eaaioiauie /eneaie.
1) Aeaaiia eaaioiaia /enei n ii?aaeaeyao o?iaaiue yia?aee, eioi?iio
ioaa/aao aeaiiay i?aeoa, e aa oaeaeaiiinoue io yae?a. *enei
iiaeao i?eieiaoue cia/aiey ?yaea iaoo?aeueiuo /enae (a ?aaeueiuo aoiiao
io iaeiiai aei naie). Yoe /enea niioaaonoaotho yeaeo?iiiui neiyi aoiia
eee aai yia?aaoe/aneei o?iaiyi, eioi?ua iaicia/athony i?iieniuie aoeaaie
eaoeineiai aeoaaeoa:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E L M N O P Q
Iiieii aeaaiiai eaaioiaiai /enea, ninoiyiea yeaeo?iia a aoiia
oa?aeoa?ecoaony aua o?aiy ae?oaeie eaaioiauie /eneaie: l, m, s.
2) I?aeoaeueiia, iiai/iia eee aceiooaeueiia eaaioiaia /enei l
oa?aeoa?ecoao iiiaio eiee/anoaa aeaeaeaiey yeaeo?iia ioiineoaeueii
oeaio?a i?aeou. Iii ii?aaeaeyao oi?io yeaeo?iiiiai iaeaea (oi?io
i?aeou), aai nieioiinoue eee ?ac?uau e aai auoyiooinoue. I?eieiaao
oeaeua cia/aiey io 0 aei (n-1). Aeey aeaiiiai cia/aiey n eiaaony n
?acee/iuo i?aeoaeae, o.a. /enei cia/aiee l ii?aaeaeyao eiee/anoai
aoiiiuo i?aeoaeae. Yia?aaoe/aneea iiaeo?iaie iaicia/athony neaaeothuei
ia?acii:
0 1 2 3
s p d f
3) Iaaieoiia eaaioiaia /enei m ii?aaeaeyao iieiaeaiea ieineinoe
i?aeou yeaeo?iia a i?ino?ainoaa eee, niaeanii i?aaenoaaeaiey aieiiaie
iaoaieee, oi iai?aaeaiea, a eioi?ii auoyiooi yeaeo?iiiia iaeaei.
Iiaeao i?eieiaoue oeaeua cia/aiey io -l aei l (aeeth/ay 0), anaai
(2*l+1) cia/aiee. *enei cia/aiee m ii?aaeaeyao /enei i?aeoaeae aeaiiiai
(s-, p-, d-, f- oeia).
4) Nieiiaia eaaioiaia /enei s ii?aaeaeyao iai?aaeaiea a?auaiey
yeaeo?iia, iiaeao i?eieiaoue oieueei aeaa cia/aiey: 1/2 e -1/2.
Eco/aieth ?ani?aaeaeaiey yeaeo?iiia a aoiiao oaeaeyaony aieueoia
aieiaiea, oae eae iiaaaeaiea aoiiia a oeie/aneeo ?aaeoeeyo a
cia/eoaeueiie ia?a caaeneo iooiai, ianeieueei i?i/ii eo yeaeo?iiu
oaea?aeeaathony ia naieo i?aeoaeyo.
NIENIE ENIIEUeCIAAIIIE EEOA?AOO?U:
1. Aa?aeiiinia N.N. “Oeiey” I., 1994.
2. A?aoi O., Eaiae A.TH. “Oeiey – a oeaio?a iaoe”, /anoue 1, I., 1983.
3. “Aaaaeaiea a iauoth oeieth”. Iiae ?aaeaeoeeae i?io. A. I.
Eo/eineiai. M., 1980.
4. Aeeiea I.E. Iauay oeiey E., 1985.
5. A. I. Eo/eineee “Eo?n oeiee”. I., 1985.
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